A training ground for German gymnastics. History of the physical education movement in Germany. German gymnastics system

Reasons for the emergence and development of national systems of physical education at the beginning of the 19th century in Germany, Sweden, France

The process of formation of national systems of physical education took place at the beginning of the 19th century on the basis of the development of capitalist socio-economic relations, politics, ideology and culture of the bourgeoisie.

The growth of industry, science and technology, and military affairs led to the need to improve the entire matter of upbringing and education of youth. This was one of the main reasons for the emergence of gymnastic and sports-game systems of physical education. This process was influenced by the research of doctors, anatomists, gymnasts, physiologists and teachers, who called for the use of physical exercise and hardening of the body in order to improve physical development youth.

Gymnastic systems were mainly created in the countries of continental Europe (Germany, Sweden, France). This was due to the peculiarities of their political and military development. The Napoleonic wars of the early nineteenth century, with the use of massive armies, required a large number of physically trained reserves. Gymnastics classes provided an opportunity to teach specific motor skills corresponding to the combat tactics of that time, as well as precise execution of combat commands.

The founders of the German gymnastics system were Johann Guts-Muts, Friedrich Jahn, and Adolf Spiess. The basis of this system was exercises on gymnastic apparatus (crossbar, parallel bars, pommel horse, ladders, poles, etc.), military game exercises, tourism, and excursions. The main goal development was considered motor abilities, complex movements, endurance, will and discipline.

Friedrich Jahn (1778 - 1852) in 1811 built a gymnastics site on the Hasen-Heide meadow near Berlin and began work. Young people, under his guidance, engaged in physical exercises on gymnastic apparatus and at the same time listened to conversations of a patriotic nature. Jan called his system “turnkunst” - the art of resourcefulness (abbreviated as turnen), and called his students turneurs. He compiled a list of exercises on gymnastic apparatus, the horizontal bar, bars and pommel horse, which boiled down to repeated repetitions of individual elements - lifts, revolutions, swings, etc.

F. Jan trained 2 thousand gymnasts. Following his example, identical schools began to appear in other cities. The Prussian government, trying to stop the unfavorable trend for itself, in 1819 banned physical education in schools and gymnastics classes adults outdoors. Jan was placed in a fortress (released in 1825). The ban on gymnastics lasted from 1820 to 1842. In 1842, a royal decree lifted the ban on Jan's set of exercises.

The Jan system in relation to school was developed by the Swiss Adolf Spiess (1810 - 1858) and supplemented with exercises with hand apparatus, changes, hangs and stops. He was helped by Ernst Eiselen, who developed a teaching methodology and produced visual tables. The Jan-Eiselen-Spiess system consisted of:

1) serial exercises;

2) floor exercises;

3) exercises with apparatus - moving and stationary;

4) mass exercises;

The theoreticians of the German Turnen considered all areas of physical culture to be gymnastics. They were especially keen on jumping athletics. However, other types of physical exercises - athletics, rowing, skating, cycling - developed under completely different conditions and according to different laws than the motor material of gymnastics. Therefore, in the second half of the 19th century, fans of these types gradually left the ranks of the gymnastic movement.

In the modern period, small open sports grounds Fans of German, French and Swedish gymnastics are starting to build. The sites include “modern” stairs, poles, fences, benches, crossbars, simple exercise equipment, etc. If we talk about large sports facilities, then they appear specifically for fencing. It is for fencing that buildings in the form of an arena begin to be built, which later become sports complexes of that time (Nikolaenko A.V. 1976).

However, the largest sports facilities are being built thanks to the Olympic Games of our time. An analysis of preparations for the Olympic Games shows that not all games were held at a high material and technical level. The first games were played in terrible conditions. For example, swimmers competed in the open sea, where the water temperature did not exceed 14 degrees. The Olympic stadium was barely repaired by the start of the first competitions. The equipment for gymnastics competitions was old and did not meet the requirements even of that time. No living conditions were created for the participants. At the second games, no special sports facilities were built. Swimmers pushed off from loose logs in the murky water. Games were an appendage of the World Trade Fair. The same thing happened on the third Olympic Games.

Rice. 6. Equipment for German gymnastics classes.

However, despite the low level of material support, the first games played an important role in the construction of facilities and the improvement of sports equipment. Subsequently, after analyzing the holding of the first games, the organizers will reconsider their attitude to the logistical support of the games. Grandiose sports facilities will be specially built, a sports industry will appear, new sports will spread and appear.

The period of modern times is characterized by a fundamentally new view of physical exercise - massive, universal. Thanks to new systems of physical education - “gymnastics”, training soldiers and city residents has become easier and faster. Sports grounds were built, a huge amount of new equipment was used: stairs, monkey bars, fences, poles, gymnastic walls, benches, gymnastic sticks, hoops, jump ropes, balls, parallel bars, pommel horse, horizontal bar and much more. Progressive systems for educating the younger generation for various social strata of the population also developed.

Rice. 7. Athletics competitions at the first Olympic Games of our time.

Formation of several international sports societies at the same time various types sports pushed the idea of ​​universal world competitions. The genius of Pierre de Coubertin revived the Olympic Games, which contributed to the development of the material base and a new attitude towards physical education. Sports facilities were improved and new equipment was invented.

Now we can say with confidence that the construction of sports facilities is underway everywhere. In production, in everyday life, in education, in defense, and in treatment, it is impossible to do without sports facilities. Therefore, the focus of the SS is the most diverse: militaristic, educational, spectacular, therapeutic ( health-improving ), sports ( adversarial ), socio-political.

GDR

German Democratic Republic. State in Central Europe. Territory - 108.2 thousand square meters. km. Population - about 17 million people (1976). The capital is Berlin (1.1 million inhabitants). The official language is German.

Physical culture and sports in the GDR are the legal right of all citizens of the republic. In 1968, as a result of a popular poll, the new socialist Constitution of the GDR was adopted, Article 18 of which states: “Physical education, sports, tourism, being elements of socialist culture, serve the comprehensive physical and mental development of citizens.”

The definition of sport as a civil right in the Basic Law of the GDR emphasizes the importance attached to physical culture and sports in the German Democratic Republic.

Speaking at the IV Sports and Gymnastics Festival of the German Sports and Gymnastics Union (DTSB) in May 1970, First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany Erich Honecker said: “Sport is part of our life, and therefore it is clear that the party and the government constantly pay great attention for the development of mass and big sport, contribute to it and support it with all our might.”

Every eighth citizen of the GDR is an athlete. Of the 17 million residents of the republic, more than 2.4 million are members of the DTSB.

On September 20, 1968, a resolution of the State Council of the GDR “On the tasks of physical culture and sports in the German Democratic Republic” was adopted.

In accordance with this decree, by 1980, 35% of the total population should be involved in regular sports.

A prerequisite for fulfilling this task is the responsibility of the entire society for the development of physical culture and sports. Therefore, this resolution states: “In planning and management, it is necessary to ensure effective cooperation between public authorities and public organizations in increasing their personal responsibility.

People's representatives and their bodies ensure coordinated interaction of all public and state forces for the widespread development of citizens' initiatives."

In the GDR, the management of physical culture and sports is carried out both through government bodies and through public organizations.

State bodies include the State Secretariat for Physical Culture and Sports of the Ministry of Public Education and Health. Each of these bodies has its own specific tasks. For example, the State Secretariat for Physical Culture and Sports is responsible for the development of the material and technical base of sports (design, construction of sports facilities, production of sports equipment), training of personnel for the sports movement, development sports science. The Ministry of Public Education is responsible for physical education and training in schools.

The management of the sports movement in the GDR is of a public nature and is carried out by the German Sports and Gymnastics Union (DTSB), which works in cooperation with the Association of Free German Trade Unions and the Union of Free German Youth (OSNM).

DTSB is a democratic, public mass organization uniting 36 sports unions(federations) and representing amateur sport countries. The union was created in 1957. Every four years, a sports and gymnastics rally of the DTSB meets, the delegates of which are elected in sports organizations, societies, district and regional organizations. He is elected at the meeting.

The central board (approximately 160 people), which meets 3-4 times a year to discuss topical issues of the further development of physical culture and sports and make appropriate decisions. The sports and gymnastics meeting develops a work program for its term of office, the progress of which

The central board must report before the next meeting.

The central board elects a presidium (22 people), which, along with sports workers, includes famous athletes and trainers.

The day-to-day management of the activities of the DTSB is carried out by the secretariat. The President of the DTSB since 1961 is Manfred Ewald.

DTSB unites 15 district organizations, 2 associations with the rights of district organizations, 215 district organizations and more than 7.5 thousand clubs (sports groups).

DTSB unites more than 2.4 million people in its ranks. More than 300 thousand people work in elected positions in sports societies and sections, boards, committees and presidiums, as well as on the board of the DTSB. The Union employs 170 thousand coaches and 80 thousand sports judges.

DTSB does not limit its activities to organizing sports competitions. His efforts are also aimed at making a significant contribution to the development of socialist mass physical culture, together with other sports and public organizations (the Ministry of Public Education, the Association of Free German Trade Unions, the Union of Free German Youth, etc.).

The Union of Free German Youth, the Association of Free German Trade Unions and the DTSB have a joint program, the implementation of which, for example, attracted about 2 million workers to participate in mass sports competitions in 1970 (after the adoption of the first program) in enterprises and recreation centers.

In 1974, a second general program was signed, greatly expanding the opportunities for GDR citizens to regularly engage in sports. The goal of the new program is to attract citizens of the GDR who are members of the DTSB to regular sports activities. In this regard, the sports program includes 4 complexes: holder of the “GDR Sports Badge”; participation in competitions in sports such as football, Athletics, skittles, table tennis, badminton, swimming; various forms of tourism and, finally, participation in mass competitions: “Run for your health!”, family sport competitions, "Tournament of Thousands" table tennis" and etc.

140 thousand public trainers play a huge role in the implementation of this program.

Children's and youth sports competitions are extremely popular in the GDR. Since the first youth sports festival (1965), the number of participants has increased from 1.7 million people to 3.05 million.

Children's and youth sports competitions are a system of competitions in Olympic sports sports It is carried out in stages, starting with schools and settlements, then at the level of district and district sports competitions, and ends every 2 years with the central children's and youth sports competitions in Berlin. 10-11 thousand young athletes participate in the final competitions of 19 Olympic sports guides. Many famous GDR athletes grew up from the winners of children's sports competitions: two-time Olympic champion and world record holder in swimming Roland Matthes, world champion in gymnastics Karin Janz, European decathlon champion Joachim Kirst and many others.

Competitions for the right to receive the GTO sports badge are very popular in the GDR (regulatory requirements are close to the GTO complex operating in the Soviet Union). Thus, by 1975, over 7 million citizens of the GDR received the GTO badge.

The most popular and popular sports in the GDR are football, gymnastics, fishing, athletics, handball, and bowling.

From 1949 to 1976, 18 world championships, 29 European championships, 56 other official championships took place on the territory of the GDR. international competitions. In addition, a large number of match meetings were held at the level of national teams of countries in various sports.

GDR athletes are favorites in many of the major competitions in which they take part. In 1974, representatives of the GDR won 2nd place in the world championships in the number of championship titles after the USSR, they won 26 gold, 25 silver and 22 bronze medals. They excelled in skiing, rowing and luge. Particularly noticeable was the superiority of the GDR rowers, who won gold awards in 10 classes of boats out of 14. The GDR athletes were ahead of all countries and in the complex winter species. Racer G. Grimmer and ski jumper H.-G. Aschenbach received 2 gold medals. At the 1974 European Championships, GDR athletes performed even more successfully. They won 36 gold, 41 silver and 31 bronze medals. The heroine of the continental swimming championship was K. Ender, who received 4 gold medals.

In 1975, representatives of the GDR won 38 gold, 24 silver and 21 bronze medals at the World Championships, and 12 gold, 18 silver and 18 bronze medals at the European Championships.

The gold medalists were: X. Stottmeister - freestyle wrestler who won the European Championship in the 2nd middle weight, cyclists K.-Y. Grunke, who became the world champion in the gig, and T. Huschke, who won the world championship in the individual pursuit. The GDR rowers performed brilliantly at the World Rowing Championships. 33 athletes returned home with gold medals. The world champions were B. Landvoigt and J. Landvoigt in double scull rowing without a coxswain, K. Gunkel and F. Lucke with coxswain E. Fritsch in double sculling rowing with a coxswain, four sculls without a coxswain, four sculls and eight, and among The women's champions were A. Shablikh in singles, double sculls without a cox, quadruple swing with a coxswain, quadruple sculls and eights.

The world championship was won by kayakers A. Zlatnof and G. Rummel in a double team at a distance of 1000 m, among women: A. Ode in a single kayak, B. Kester and K. Tsirtsov in a double kayak and the crew of a four-man kayak.

3 gold medals were won by the canoe slalom specialists from the GDR: Z. Horn - single kayak, G. Kretschmer and H. Trummer - double canoe, a team of three boats in double canoe slalom.

Judoists T. Raisman became European champions, winning the lightweight, and D. Lorenz - in light heavyweight. K. Kessov became the world champion in women's all-around speed skating. GDR track and field athletes won 4 gold medals at the European Indoor Championships: G. Stolle won the 800 m run, the other three medals were won by women: M. Barkuski (800 m run), R. Ackermann-Bicas (high jump), M. Adam (shot put).

The swimmers achieved good results at the World Championships. R. Matthes became the champion in backstroke swimming at a distance of 100 m and 10 gold medals were won by women: K. Ender (100 m freestyle and 100 m butterfly), X. Anke (100 and 200 m breaststroke), R. Koter (200 m butterfly), W. Richter (100 m backstroke), B. Treiber (200 m backstroke), W. Tauber (400 m medley swimming), the 4 X 100 m freestyle and 4 X 100 medley relay team.

All first places at the World and European Luge Championships went to GDR athletes. The world champions were: V. Fiedler on a single-seater sleigh, V. Khan and U. Khan - on a double-sleigh, M. Schumann - among women. The European champions were: D. Ponter on a single-seater sleigh, X. Rinn and A. Khan on a double-sleigh.

GDR shooters won 2 gold medals in 1975: A. Vollmar won the European Free Pistol Shooting Championship, and the men's team won the World Skeet Shooting Championship.

The weightlifter P. Wenzel became the world and European welterweight champion. Women's Continental Championship single skating Figure skater K. Errat won.

The GDR women's handball team became the world champion, and the men's handball team "ASK Vorwärts" from Frankfurt an der Oder won the Cup European champions. Volleyball Cup Winners' Cup won women's team"Tractor" from the city of Schwerin. The GDR hockey players won Group B of the World Championship and in 1976 played in Group A.

Currently, GDR athletes maintain sports ties with more than 100 countries around the world. GDR athletes have the closest contacts with athletes Soviet Union and other socialist countries. In 1966, a long-term agreement for 5 years was signed between DTSB and sports organizations of the Soviet Union, which was then extended. Currently, DTSB has similar agreements with other socialist countries. In addition to these agreements, there are state agreements in the field of sports with Iraq, Finland, Egypt, Syria, as well as joint programs with workers' sports unions and sports organizations in many countries.

Sports organizations of the GDR provide significant assistance to developing countries in training national sports personnel. Currently, various contacts have been established with more than 40 sports organizations in Asia, Africa and Latin America. This cooperation is most often regulated through agreements having the force of a treaty and general sports programs, providing for the exchange of sports teams, training and advanced training of coaches and teachers, sending GDR sports personnel to these countries, sports and scientific cooperation. To date, more than 1000 trainers, certified physical education teachers, masters and sports doctors have been trained for these countries at the faculties of the German Higher School of Physical Education.

Of particular importance is the long-term agreement on further cooperation between the High Council of Sports in Africa and the German Union of Physical Culture and Sports, signed on January 12, 1973. In 1971 and 1973. In the GDR, summer courses were organized at the DTSB, in which 43 leading specialists in the field of sports from 24 African, Asian and Latin American countries took part. The courses have received high international praise.

Evidence of the great trust that the international sports community places in the sports organizations of the GDR was the order of the GDR to hold the Second European Sports Conference in 1975.

Sports organizations of the GDR are members of 79 international sports associations, in which 117 representatives of the republic occupy 168 positions in governing, technical, scientific and judicial bodies and commissions. The GDR is a member of the International Association of Higher Educational Institutions of Physical Education and Sports (AIESEP), the International Sports Press Association (AIPS), the International Association of Sports Psychology (ISSP), the International Sports Committee of the Deaf (ISC), the International Council of Physical Education and Sports (CIEPS), Sports Committee of the Friendly Armies (SCADA), International Sports Union of Railway Workers (USIK), International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), International University Sports Federation (FISU). In addition, representatives of the GDR are members of individual federations, leagues, and unions in sports: aviation, automobile, badminton, basketball, billiards, boxing, cycling, aquatics skiing, water-motor sports, volleyball, handball, gymnastics, rowing, kayaking and canoeing, judo, Italian rounders, roller skating, skittles, equestrianism, speed skating, athletics, skiing, motorsports, orienteering , sailing, swimming, diving and water polo, gliding, underwater sports, rugby, luge, modern pentathlon, sport fishing, shooting sports, shooting, archery, boat modeling, tennis, table tennis, weightlifting, fencing, football, hockey, field hockey, chess.

Together with representatives of socialist countries and progressive figures in world sports from developing and capitalist countries, representatives of the GDR in these associations and federations are working to further democratize the international sports movement and for equal representation of their country’s athletes in the world sports arena. This work was a significant success. So, by 1974 in all international sports associations sports organizations The GDR is recognized by the official name of the republic. The flag and anthem of the GDR are also recognized.

In a relatively short period, the German Democratic Republic has become the leading sports power in the world. Representatives of the GDR have participated in all Summer and Winter Olympic Games since 1956, performing in all competitions of the Olympic cycle, except basketball. The GDR joined the Olympic movement in 1955, when the IOC recognized the National Olympic Committee of the GDR with the condition that GDR athletes would compete at the games together with representatives of the Federal Republic of Germany as part of a unified German team (OGK). The composition of OGKs was determined based on the results qualifying competitions, in which athletes from the GDR and Germany participated. Each time, GDR athletes won more and more places in the OGK. At the 1956 Olympic Games, GDR athletes made up 21% of the OGK members, in 1960 - 41%, in 1964 - 52%. GDR athletes successfully competed in boxing, athletics, kayaking and canoeing, and diving. I. Kremer achieved outstanding success, winning in 1960 and 1964. 3 gold and 1 silver medal in diving. Speaking at the White Olympics 1956-1964. GDR athletes were among the winners in competitions in speed skating, ski jumping, and luge.

In 1965, the IOC decided to grant the GDR the right to compete independently at the Olympic Games, but its team retained the artificial name “East Germany”. GDR athletes were denied the right to compete at games under their national flag. In 1968, on the initiative of representatives of the USSR and other socialist countries, supported by the progressive public, the IOC decided that after the 1968 Olympic Games the GDR would be fully represented at the games under the name “German Democratic Republic” with its national flag and anthem. In 1966, the Chairman of the NOC of the GDR, X. Schebel, was elected a member of the IOC for the GDR.

The performance of the GDR team at the XIX Olympic Games in 1968 was a success. GDR athletes competed in 19 sports and received points in 17. In the unofficial team competition they took 3rd place (after the USA and USSR).

The GDR athletes retained the same high 3rd place at the XX Olympic Games in 1972, and the gap between the GDR team and the teams of the strongest Olympic powers - the USSR and the USA - was significantly reduced compared to 1968 (from 3-52.8 up to 166.5 points). Representatives of the GDR received 20 gold medals at the XX Olympiad - more than they managed to win at all previous Olympiads. The GDR team was first in the rowing, kayak and canoe slalom competitions, and second in athletics.

At the Games of the XXI Olympiad in 1976, the GDR team took 2nd place in the overall unofficial team competition, scoring 638 points and winning 40 gold, 25 silver and 25 bronze medals. They were first in rowing, women's athletics, women's swimming, in shooting sports.

At the XI Winter Olympic Games, the GDR team took 22nd place in the overall unofficial team standings, ahead of a number of countries with highly developed winter sports. The GDR Olympians took 1st place in luge and 3rd in biathlon. Olympic champions steel V. Scheidel (single sleigh), H. Hernlein and R. Bredov (double sleigh) - in men's, A.-M. Müller (single-seat sled) - in women's competitions and W. Wehling - in Nordic combined.

At the XII Winter Olympic Games in 1976, GDR athletes were again second and won 7 gold, 5 silver and 7 bronze medals. The performance of the lugers was brilliant, they won all the gold medals: D. Günther on the single-seater sleigh, H. Rinn and N. Hann on the double-sleigh and M. Schumann among the women. For the first time speaking in Olympic competitions in bobsleigh, the GDR teams won both gold medals: in double bobsleigh - M. Nemer and B. Hermeshausen, in fours - M. Nomer, J. Babok, B. Hermeshausen and B. Lehmann.

Second gold Olympic medal W. Wehling received in Nordic combined. The champion in 70-meter springboard jumping was H.-G. Aschenbach.

INTRODUCTION

1 THE EMERGENCE OF NATIONAL GYMNASTICS SYSTEMS

1.1 German gymnastics

1.2 Swedish gymnastics

1.3 Sokol gymnastics

2 REFORM OF PETER II AND THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL CULTURE IN RUSSIA

2.1 Physical culture and sports in the first half of the 19th century

2.2 Physical culture and sports in the second half of the 19th century

3 REVIVAL OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES. THE ROLE OF PIERRE DE COUBERTIN

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

INTRODUCTION

Relevance of the topic. End of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century. characterized by the further development of capitalism. During this period, bourgeois revolutions took place in France, Spain, and Portugal. Napoleon's army conquered a number of European countries and made a campaign against Russia, which had a huge impact, including on the development of military affairs.

With the advent of the Renaissance, which restored interest in art Ancient Greece, remembered the Olympic Games. At the beginning of the 19th century. the sport gained universal recognition in Europe, and a desire arose to organize something similar to the Olympic Games.

Target work - to study the emergence of national gymnastics systems and the development of physical culture in Russia in the 19th century.

Job objectives:

·study the emergence of national gymnastics systems;

· consider German gymnastics (teaching techniques and methods);

· consider Swedish gymnastics (techniques and teaching methods);

· consider Sokol gymnastics (creator, techniques and teaching methods);

·consider the reforms of Peter I and their significance for the development of physical culture in Russia;

·study physical culture and sports in the first half of the 19th century;

·study physical culture and sports in the second half of the 19th century;

·consider the revival of the Olympic Games and the role of Pierre de Coubertin.

Object of work: physical culture and sport of the 19th century.

CHAPTER 1 THE EMERGENCE OF NATIONAL GYMNASTICS SYSTEMS

End of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century. characterized by the further development of capitalism. During this period, bourgeois revolutions took place in France, Spain, and Portugal. Napoleon's army conquered a number of European countries and made a campaign against Russia, which had a huge impact, including on the development of military affairs.

To successfully conduct aggressive and defensive wars, massive regular armies and good non-military military-physical training of young people were needed. These circumstances stimulated the creation of national gymnastics systems that meet the requirements of capitalist production, military affairs, and the national and cultural characteristics of peoples.

The French gymnastics system began to develop under the influence of the mass enthusiasm of French youth for military physical training. Members of youth sports teams They did gymnastics, took part in hiking trips and paramilitary games. Napoleon converted youth teams into school battalions and made them army reserves.

After the defeat of France in the Napoleonic Wars, work on gymnastics in the French army was headed by Colonel Don Francisco Amoros (1770 - 1848). In 1830, he published a “Guide to Physical, Gymnastic and Moral Education” and an atlas that included 53 exercise tables. He organized civilian and military gymnastics schools. His system of gymnastics was natural and applied and was based on the ideas of Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, military applied practice of physical training of soldiers and officers of that time.

By using gymnastic exercises the soldiers developed muscle strength, endurance, flexibility, the ability to feel (development of sensory organs), think and act decisively and boldly, skills and abilities necessary in life and military conditions were formed. For this purpose, walking, running over obstacles, jumping, throwing, carrying loads or the “wounded,” swimming and diving, fencing and vaulting, horse riding, dancing, climbing, climbing using ladders, poles, ropes and other devices were used. When teaching exercises, a competitive method was used. In addition, it was provided:

a) physiological justification for individual exercises;

b) medical and pedagogical control over students;

c) the development of not only their motor abilities, but also their moral and volitional qualities;

d) good knowledge of the individual characteristics of students;

e) development of independence and creative activity in educational work.

The military-applied nature of the French gymnastics system survived until the 20th century. Taking advantage of their position as hosts of the Second Olympic Games in 1900, the French insisted that the competition program include applied exercises: long jump, pole jump, over obstacles, rope climbing, lifting weights weighing 50 kg and tug of war.

§1.1 German gymnastics system

The German gymnastics system developed under the influence of the advanced part of the German bourgeoisie. The founders of the German gymnastics system were Johann Guts-Muts, Friedrich Jahn, and Adolf Spiess. The basis of this system was exercises on gymnastic apparatus (crossbar, parallel bars, pommel horse, ladders, poles, etc.), military game exercises, tourism, and excursions. The main goal was considered to be the development of motor abilities, complex movements, endurance, will and discipline. The greatest contribution to the development of gymnastics was made by scientists Fit, Guts-Muts, Jan, Spiess.

Friedrich Jahn (1778 - 1852) in 1811 built a gymnastics area on the Hasen-Heide meadow near Berlin and began work. Young people, under his guidance, engaged in physical exercises on gymnastic apparatus and at the same time listened to conversations of a patriotic nature. Jan called his system “turnkunst” - the art of resourcefulness (abbreviated as turnen), and called his students turneurs. He compiled a list of exercises on gymnastic apparatus, the horizontal bar, bars and pommel horse, which boiled down to repeated repetitions of individual elements - lifts, revolutions, swings, etc.

F. Jan trained 2 thousand gymnasts. Following his example, identical schools began to appear in other cities. The Prussian government, trying to stop the unfavorable trend for itself, in 1819 banned physical education in schools and outdoor gymnastics for adults. Jan was placed in a fortress (released in 1825). The ban on gymnastics lasted from 1820 to 1842. In 1842, a royal decree lifted the ban on Jan's set of exercises.

The Jan system in relation to school was developed by the Swiss Adolf Spiess (1810 - 1858) and supplemented with exercises with hand apparatus, changes, hangs and stops. He was helped by Ernst Eiselen, who developed a teaching methodology and produced visual tables. The Jahn–Eiselen–Spiess system consisted of:

1) serial exercises;

2) floor exercises;

3) exercises with apparatus – moving and stationary;

4) mass exercises;

Gerhard Ulrich Anton Fith (1763 1836) summarized and systematized everything that had been done in the field of physical exercise before him, and outlined it in his “Experience in an Encyclopedia of Physical Exercise.” This work consists of three parts: “Data for the history of physical exercises” (1794), “System of physical exercises” (1795), “Appendices to the first and second parts” (1819). He defined the concept of "Physical exercise": it is all movement and application physical strength human body, with the goal of improving the latter. With the help of gymnastic exercises, according to Fit, a teacher can:

b) develop beautiful shapes bodies;

c) increase strength and speed of movements;

d) develop accuracy and confidence in movements, give vigor and determination to the spirit;

e) develop the need for mental work and useful spending of free time;

f) distract from the early appearance of sexual needs.

Fit proposed a number of rules and guidelines for conducting classes:

a) the need for specially equipped training places;

b) high professional preparedness of the teacher;

c) taking into account the individual characteristics of students when selecting exercises (health, constitutional characteristics, doctor’s instructions).

On a highly technical basis, Fit developed exercises in vaulting on a wooden horse and uneven bars.

He believed that school examinations could be made public in the form of competitions in science, art and gymnastic exercises.

Johann Christopher Guts-Muths (1759 1839) at the beginning of his pedagogical activity tried to adapt Rousseau's ideas about physical education, his call for a return to the bosom of nature, the idealization of the primitive savage for the education of a strong, courageous younger generation, the model of which should be the old (medieval) German.

Guts-Muts wrote a number of works on gymnastics: “Gymnastics for Youth” (1804); "Games for the development and relaxation of body and spirit" (1796); “Gymnastic manual for the sons of the fatherland” (1817), etc. They were translated into French, English, Danish and contributed to the spread of the author’s ideas in Europe.

After the capture of Germany by the Napoleonic army, Guts-Muts's views on physical education changed; this change was facilitated by the national liberation movement and the development of capitalism. The teacher believed that students of higher educational institutions and future teachers should be introduced to gymnastic exercises. Gymnastics, in his opinion, had an even closer relationship with all other classes, because their body should serve the state. Gymnastics was then considered the basis of the national system of physical education of the German people.

The Guts-Muts gymnastics system included the following exercises: long, high, deep and pole jumps, walking and running with obstacles, throwing various objects, climbing, climbing, balance exercises (beam, horizontal rope, etc.), carrying weights, marching with special military exercises, swimming etc. Training was carried out using a visual method, competitions were used, and a gymnastic style of performing exercises was established.

In order to organize the struggle for the liberation of the fatherland from Napoleon, the Tugenbund (Union of Virtue) arose in 1808 in Koenigsberg. Government and public figures took part in its work. Gymnastics was considered as one of the important means of preparing young people for the liberation of their homeland. In 1809, this union was closed by order of Napoleon. However, under the influence of the ideas of the Tugenbund, nationalist patriots in Braunsberg (Prussia) founded the first open parade ground as a public institution for gymnastics.

Guts-Muts's ideas formed the basis of the German Tournain and the Swedish gymnastics system.

Through gymnastics, Jan tried to restore the lost balance of human education, to place physical activity next to one-sided spiritual activity, and to contrast masculinity with excessive refinement.

Yang included 24 groups of exercises in his system. Many of them are borrowed from Fit, Guts-Muts. Special attention were given exercises on a gymnastic horse, goat, parallel bars, horizontal bar (crossbar), exercises with a bench and hoop, acrobatics, dancing. Military applied exercises were also used: archery and firearms, carrying heavy loads, horse riding, etc.

Exercises without gymnastic equipment and with projectiles they became more interesting and attractive to young people due to the fact that their execution was given a competitive nature. Jan encouraged the achievements of his students; he attached great importance to the form of movements and technique of performing exercises. He demanded from the pupils straight position head, pointed toes, straight lines in movements and military bearing. The gymnastic style of performing exercises was born.

The gymnastics course was designed for two periods. In the first period they used relatively simple exercises: walking, running, jumping, climbing, exercises on apparatus, games. The principle of gradualness, consistency, and the correct combination of load and rest was observed. Much attention was paid to the development of will, the study of the individual abilities of those involved. In the second period, the gymnasts performed more complex exercises.

The lesson consisted of two parts. In the first part, the students worked independently, each choosing for himself what to do.

At this time, the prefects and teachers provided order, insurance, provided assistance and observed the inclinations, aspirations and abilities of the students. In the second part of the lesson, mandatory exercises were performed for everyone. The students were divided into sections according to age. They were shown basic and introductory exercises, which they had to repeat after the teacher. The studied exercise was repeated many times (up to 100 or more times). The main attention was paid to the development of muscle strength, endurance and will.

In 1811, Jan opened an outdoor gymnastics facility in Hessenheiden, near Berlin. This contributed to the further development of gymnastics..."

The Prussian government used gymnastics as one of the levers to mobilize the population to solve state problems. For this purpose, gymnastics societies and unions are organized, and gymnastics is introduced into the school system.

The founder of school gymnastics in Germany is considered to be Adolf Spiess (1816 - 1858), a teacher of gymnastics, history and singing. Based on the work of his predecessors, he developed a system of school gymnastics and justified the need to teach it as a compulsory subject. In his four-volume work, “The Teaching of the Art of Tournai,” he described drill and floor exercises, and developed exercises in hanging and resting positions. He actually developed Pestalozzi's idea of ​​developing children's ability to work with the help of gymnastic exercises to the point of teaching disciplined, drilling floor exercises. The main ones were walking, running, jumping, bouncing, turning, exercises for the arms, torso and legs. The exercises were performed to musical accompaniment, combined with singing and demonstrated at gymnastics festivals.

Spiess increased the size of the crossbar and parallel bars so that 4-6 people could train on them at the same time, and adapted them for classes with schoolchildren. The exercises were systematized in order of increasing difficulty. When selecting exercises and dosing the load, a differentiated approach was taken to boys and girls, strong and weak students. The gymnastics lesson began with drill exercises on the spot and in motion, followed by floor exercises and apparatus exercises. The lesson ended with outdoor games and mass exercises.

The main disadvantage of the Spiess method was that the exercises were performed by all students at the same time. This made an individual approach difficult; individuality was subject to the formal requirements of discipline and order. Drill and floor exercises, which really had enormous potential for a comprehensive impact on a person, served only as a means of discipline and drill.

Spiess completed the creation of the German gymnastics system.

The theoreticians of the German Turnen considered all areas of physical culture to be gymnastics. They were especially keen on jumping athletics. However, other types of physical exercises - athletics, rowing, skating, cycling - developed under completely different conditions and according to different laws than the motor material of gymnastics. Therefore, in the second half of the 19th century, fans of these types gradually left the ranks of the gymnastic movement.

§1.2 Swedish gymnastics system

The Swedish gymnastics system was created on the initiative of the government, which entrusted its development to Peru Henrik Ling (1776 - 1830). He graduated from the Faculty of Theology of Uppsala University, the Institute for Children and Adults in Copenhagen (Denmark) - the first educational institution in Europe for physical education. Ling was a highly educated man and was fond of poetry. For his success in this area, he was elected a member of the Swedish Academy.

At his suggestion, a gymnastics institute was opened in Stockholm in 1813, which still exists today. The main goal of Swedish gymnastics is to strengthen the health of young people, harmoniously develop their body, prepare for military service. All exercises, depending on their goals and purpose, were divided into pedagogical, military, medical, and aesthetic gymnastics. Per Ling established the dependence of the form of movements on the anatomical structure of the body and therefore classified gymnastic exercises according to this criterion. They included exercises for arms, legs, abdominals, spinal and lateral muscles of the body, etc. P. Ling’s concept was based on the fact that physical education should be based exclusively on knowledge confirmed by anatomy and biology. His set of rules is that each activity is a closed unity. It started with a warm-up. The main part was devoted to elements of increased intensity with holding positions that contribute to the development of strength. The session ended with the usual relaxation exercises.

Having a narrow understanding of the physiological usefulness of physical exercise, he excluded exercises that he considered harmful to the body and fenced off complex forms of motor material in sports.

His father's work was continued by his son Hjalmar Ling (1799 - 1881). He developed and introduced new Swedish apparatus: wall, bench, double boom, plinth, etc. He also used exercises on apparatus already known in other gymnastics systems (rope, pole, ladder, goat, pommel horse, parallel bars, crossbar, etc.). However, here the equipment only helped to better complete the exercises provided for in the lesson plan. Their use could be replaced by the help of a comrade. Great importance was given to the original positions.

The gymnastics lesson consisted of 16 parts. The exercises were performed in a strictly established sequence: building a group or changing lines for classes, preparatory exercises for the legs, exercises for forming correct posture, balance exercises, for abdominal muscles, distraction exercises for legs, pull-ups, breathing exercises. He described in detail the technique of performing exercises, proposed teaching methods, and developed the structure of a gymnastics lesson. The lesson consisted of flow-through exercises for individual body parts combined with balance, walking, running and breathing exercises at the end of the lesson. The load increased and decreased several times during the lesson. In order to effectively influence individual muscle groups, the authors of the system came up with new equipment - wall bars, boom, bench, plinth. Their purpose was fundamentally different from the shells adopted in German gymnastics. There, the practitioners tried to perform all the movements that could be performed, and in Swedish gymnastics, apparatus played a supporting role. They either made it easier or more difficult to perform movements, depending on the tasks assigned, making it possible to influence individual muscle groups in isolation. Swedish gymnastics was characterized by symmetry, straightness, small amplitude and angularity of movements, and excessive static effort, which is why critics called it “gymnastics of poses.” But, despite these shortcomings, it differed favorably from German gymnastics in its hygienic orientation and methodological soundness.

Thus, the Swedish system contributed to the creation of the foundations of modern physical culture through the local development of individual muscle groups and health protection. The German system - through physical training and education on a collective basis.

The Swedish system arose after German gymnastics. The founder of this system was Heinrich Ling and his son Hjalmar Ling completed this system.

The main goal of Swedish gymnastics was the task of improving health and promoting health. This gymnastics was designed for both children and adults; all exercises were divided into 4 main groups:

a) pedagogical gymnastics (its goal is the harmonious development of healthy children, starting from school age);

b) military gymnastics (consisted of specially selected exercises that would promote physical training military);

c) medical gymnastics (contained exercises of a corrective nature and used in the treatment of various diseases);

G) aesthetic gymnastics(aimed at developing and improving the shape of the human body and cultivating a sense of beauty).

Based on anatomical and physiological data, G. Ling sought to give gymnastics a scientific basis. But since during this period the level of development of physiology was not high, the classification of exercises was made according to anatomical criteria.

P. Ling and Y. Ling, together with scientists Bratting, Terngrem and others, developed pedagogical gymnastics in detail, believing that the highest goal of gymnastics is to care for the harmonious development of the human body.

Military gymnastics in the army was aimed at preparing an obedient, disciplined soldier with good military bearing and beautiful posture.

Swedish gymnastics was distinguished by its health-improving nature, the selection of exercises depending on anatomical capabilities, a strict focus on involving certain muscles in the work, a variety of exercises, and the introduction of new equipment and teaching methods. This gymnastics system quickly became popular in many European countries. However, it also had a number of disadvantages, which were pointed out by P.F. Lesgaft and J. Demeny, namely: the exercises did not correspond to the structure of the human body, were not consistent with its physiological processes, and were not used to solve educational problems.

The disadvantages of Swedish gymnastics include the lack of an individual approach, straightforwardness and static nature of the exercises performed.

§1.3 Sokol gymnastics

The Sokol gymnastic system was the first Slavic system of physical education that received wide recognition in Russia at the end of the 19th century. In the domestic literature there are still no studies covering the forms and methods of work of Sokol organizations, both domestic and foreign. In existing sources, the analysis of activities, unfortunately, was carried out too tendentiously and one-sidedly. A graduate of the University of Prague, M. Tyrsh, being a representative of the bourgeois intelligentsia, sought to unite and unite the Czech people to participate in the national liberation struggle against the Austrian conquerors. In his book “Fundamentals of Physical Training,” he outlined an original system of exercises, the basis of which was German gymnastics, improved in the 50s and 60s. XIX century Spiessom. This system was supplemented by M. Tyrsh with elements borrowed from different types European gymnastics, as well as some types of athletics.

Analyzing the available materials, it can be stated that Sokolstvo was born in the era of the awakening of Czech self-awareness.

The ideas generated by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars caused an intensification of the socio-political movement throughout Europe at the beginning of the 19th century, which by the middle of the century resulted in a number of revolutionary actions. The general desire for independence and freedom also penetrated into the Czech Republic, which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and began the struggle for national liberation. In this era, Sokolstvo was born, formalizing the national aspirations of the Czech people into one coherent system, which, gradually developing and improving, turned into a noticeable social phenomenon not only in the Czech Republic, but also in other Slavic states, primarily in Russia.

The Sokol system of gymnastics is the first significant Slavic system of physical education, called "Falcon" - used as a symbol of freedom, courage, independence. In the Czech Republic, this organization was headed by people of rare energy and outstanding moral qualities: the founder M. Tyrsh, who served as the head of the company for 20 years, and the first chairman I. Figner, who donated his entire fortune to create the material base of Sokol and the construction of the first Prague Falconry. A graduate of the University of Prague, M. Tyrsh, being a representative of the bourgeois intelligentsia, sought to unite and unite the Czech people to participate in the national liberation struggle against the Austrian conquerors. In his book “Fundamentals of Physical Training,” he outlined an original system of exercises, the basis of which was German gymnastics, improved in the 50s and 60s. XIX century Spiessom. M. Tyrsh supplemented this system with elements borrowed from various types of European gymnastics, as well as some types of athletics. All exercises were divided into four main groups.

The first group - exercises without apparatus: walking, running, floor exercises, drills, round dances, dancing.

The second group is apparatus exercises: simple long jumps, high attack jumps, deep pole vaults, exercises on a goat, a long table, a long and wide horse with and without handles, crossbar, parallel bars, stilts, ladders , wall bars, ropes, poles, Swedish bench, beam, skates, bicycle. Exercises with equipment: exercises with various weights (sticks, dumbbells, weights, etc.); throwing exercises (javelin, discus, hammer, cube, shot, ball); exercises with objects (flags, flags, clubs, jump ropes).

Third group - group exercises: pyramids, mass gymnastic performances, outdoor games.

The fourth group is combat exercises: fencing, wrestling, boxing, resistance exercises.

A step forward was that in Sokol gymnastics attention was paid not to the number of repetitions, as was the case in German and Swedish gymnastics, but to the beauty of their execution. The falcons excluded all movements that looked ugly. The classes were conducted according to the following scheme: first drill exercises, then freestyle movements, exercises with apparatus and combat, then exercises on apparatus in subgroups (usually three with a change of apparatus), then general exercises(pyramids), finally, drill again, after which classes ended. Gymnastic exercises began to be combined in combinations, musical accompaniment, beautiful costumes and special gymnastic shoes were introduced.

In general, the system was aimed at regular and targeted training of the body and was considered by its author as a means of physical and moral education of the Czech people, helping to strengthen physical and moral strength and military training. Developing the ideological foundations of the Sokol movement, M. Tyrsh turned to the physical culture of Ancient Greece.

Admiration for pan-Hellenic festivals led M. Tyrsh to the idea of ​​​​organizing similar physical education festivals, which could contribute to the rapprochement of all Slavic peoples. In 1868, in Prague, he attempted to hold joint public physical training performances of all Slavic Sokol societies of Austria-Hungary. However, it was not successful because the authorities refused to allow them to take place. They took place only fourteen years later. In the Sokol press of that time, the celebrations were called the Olympics, but officially these gymnastic performances went down in history as all-Sokol rallies, at which mass freestyle movements were demonstrated and competitions were held on various gymnastic apparatus. In 1889 Czech "falcons" took part in the congress French gymnasts in Paris, which was organized by Pierre de Coubertin.

In 1892 The second trip of the “Falcons” took place to the gymnastic festivals of French gymnasts in Nancy. Influenced by the ideas of Olympism, in the same year, on the initiative of the Sokol society, a decision was made to organize games for young people.

It should be noted that the Czech “falcons” took an active part in international competitions, such as the competitions of the Union of European Gymnastic Societies. In 1911, they became the winners of these competitions, leaving behind all the representatives of the nations that were members of the European Union. In addition to gymnastic exercises, the competition also included elements of athletics: shot put, high vault with a pole, and 100 m run.

A distinctive feature of the Sokol movement was that from the very beginning, representatives of the society carried out cultural and educational work among the broad masses of the Czech people. Before the creation of "Falcon", the overwhelming majority of Czech peasants were illiterate, but even those who had the opportunity to attend school studied in a foreign language, German. "Falcons" played a huge role in the development of literacy and education among their people. The first Sokolnys (places where Sokol gymnastics classes were held) had libraries, literacy schools, were engaged in publishing activities, and widely distributed books in their native language among the Czech people.

Thanks to the attractiveness of the forms of work with children, with female and male youth, the Sokol movement has become widespread in many countries of the world. The world owes the falcon the introduction of gymnastic terminology, the creation of rules for judging competitions, the widespread use of gymnastic equipment and high gymnastic skills. Sokolstvo became one of the foundations for the development of modern artistic gymnastics.

CHAPTER 2 PETER'S REFORM I AND THEIR IMPORTANCE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL CULTURE IN RUSSIA

§2.1 Physical culture and sports in the first half XIX V.

Educational, military and other reforms of the 18th century. did not have a significant impact on the physical education of the masses Russian Empire. There was no physical education in public schools (parish and district). In such a situation, original forms of physical exercises and games remained the only means of physical education for the poor. In folk life of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries. Many types of games and exercises of past centuries continued to be preserved and developed. Despite the royal decrees banning them (1726, 1832, etc.) and persecution by the church, they continued to be passed on by tradition from one generation to another. In the everyday life of the peoples of Russia, all kinds of games, entertainment and physical exercises were cultivated in a wide variety. In the games and amusements of the Russian people, said V.G. Belinsky, “... the simple-minded severity of his morals, heroic strength and the wide scope of his feelings” are manifested with all force.

The games and physical exercises of the peoples of our country reflected the production activities of people (hunting, farming, cattle breeding, fishing, etc.), the military and family life of the people. Physical exercises and games with a sporting orientation were especially popular among the people. These included games and exercises without objects (wrestling, fist fighting, jumping, racing, burners, geese-swans, etc.) and with objects (small towns, grandmothers, siskin, lapta, pile, games with a ball, ball, rope and etc.). In addition, skiing, sledding and wooden skates with metal runners were widespread in folk life. Swimming, rowing, sailing, horse riding and archery continued to exist and develop. This entire complex of games and exercises constituted a unique folk system of physical education. This system was supplemented folk remedies hardening using the natural forces of nature: swimming in cold water or wiping with snow.

In the process of games and physical exercises, strength and agility, speed and endurance, accuracy and intelligence, etc. were developed. The masses showed high moral-volitional and physical qualities in the struggle for the independence of our Motherland in the Patriotic War of 1812, etc.

Many folk physical exercises and games are reflected in fiction, poetry, and fine arts. A.S. Pushkin dedicated poetic lines to the sculptures “A Guy Playing Match” by the Russian sculptor A.V. Lagonovsky (1836) and “The Guy Playing Knuckles” by N.S. Pimenova (1836). In the sculpture of A.A. Ivanov’s “A Young Man Playing Gorodki” shows one of the most favorite games of the Russian people.

Described in detail fist fights N. G. Pomyalovsky in the novel "Porečane". He also described it in “Essays on Bursa” folk game into a foot ball, called "keel". The popular game of the Siberian and Ural Cossacks “Capture of the Snow Fortress” was beautifully depicted by the wonderful Russian artist V.I. Surikov.

The growth of industrial production and trade required an influx of labor. There is a strong migration of the rural population to the city for work. Under these conditions, on the one hand, the original forms of physical education of the people are gradually declining in rural areas. But, on the other hand, folk physical exercises and games are spreading among city residents. State reforms in the field of economics, military affairs and culture carried out in the 18th century ensured the rise of the noble class. The tsarist government began to strive to improve the spiritual and physical culture of the nobles. In 1717 The book “An Honest Mirror of Youth” was published, which was a set of rules for the behavior of young nobles in high society. It noted: “A young nobleman or nobleman, if he is perfect in his exercises, and especially in languages, in horse riding, in dancing, in sword fighting, and can carry out a good conversation, besides being eloquent and learned in books, he can with such in leisure, to be a direct court person." To raise the culture of the nobility, assemblies (later noble meetings) were established, at which games, dances and other entertainment were held. Peter I paid special attention to the development of sailing and rowing among the nobles. At the same time, he pursued a practical goal - replenishing the navy with officer cadres. On his instructions, in 1719 the so-called “Neva Flotilla” was created and regulations were developed for teaching sailing and rowing. 141 ships were distributed to the nobles for free use. On certain days and hours they gathered on the Neva and learned how to control the sail and studied the art of rowing. After Peter I, sailing and rowing went into decline. Catherine I and Elizaveta Petrovna tried to revive Peter's regulations, but they were not successful. Only in 1846 opened in St. Petersburg imperial yacht club. Its members included 125 people closest to Nicholas I.

In the everyday life of the noble nobility of Russia, fencing with espadrons, sabers, rapiers, swords and daggers was widely developed; archery, rifle and pistol shooting; hunting on foot, horseback, with dogs and with birds; horse riding, both for men and women. These were noble sports. They served the noble nobility as means of entertainment. At the same time, mastery of these sports contributed to the preparation of nobles for military officer service. The spread of fencing and pistol shooting is also due to the fact that duels often took place among the nobility. Specialists, most of all foreigners, were invited to teach fencing and horse riding: fencing masters - fencing teachers and riders - riding teachers.

In the first half of the 19th century. Various fencing, shooting, gymnastics and swimming private sports institutions intended for aristocratic circles are becoming widespread. For the most part, they were opened by foreigners who came to Russia to enrich themselves. Their activities were based on commercial principles. Sometimes shooting and fencing competitions were held. So, in one of the newspapers "S. - Petersburg Gazette" for 1808. the following announcement appeared: “Next Saturday, October 10, at the meeting of shooting enthusiasts there will be a general fencing ball or the so-called “ASSO” exclusively for the members of this meeting. Those amateurs who intend to join it must pay an annual fee consisting of 50 rubles". Equestrian competitions (running, horse racing) were also held among Russian troikas from time to time. For activities and entertainment, special structures were built - arenas, shooting ranges, hippodromes, ski hills, carousels, etc.

At the end of the 18th century. and the first half of the 19th century. Manuals began to be published that outlined the basics of technology, tactics and methods of teaching fencing, swimming, shooting and other types of physical exercises. In 1796 fencing teacher Balthasar Fischer wrote the book “The Art of Fencing in Its Entire Space.” In 1808 Thevenot's book "The Art of Sailing with Reasoning" was published. In the middle of the 19th century. Two more textbooks on fencing were published: N.V. Sokolov “Drawing the rules of fencing art” (1843) and I.E. Severbrick "Guide to the study of fencing with rapiers and espadrons" (1852).

Ball games, chess, and checkers occupied a significant place in the life of the nobility. Under Catherine II, a “ball game professor” was discharged from France, who taught noble youth to play “jeux de paume,” the prototype of modern tennis. The nobles enthusiastically played shuttlecock, which was reminiscent of our badminton, rounders, burners, croquet and other games.

§2.2 Physical culture and sports in the second half XIX V.

At the beginning of the second half of the 19th century, the feudal-serf system was experiencing a deep economic, political and military crisis. The defeat of Tsarist Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1855) especially clearly showed the rottenness and backwardness of the serf system. The government was forced to carry out some reforms.

After the abolition of serfdom (1861) and the implementation of zemstvo (1864), military (1874) and school (60-80s) reforms, the development of capitalism began at a rapid pace.

At special courses, officers and non-commissioned officers were trained to conduct gymnastics classes. The military reform of 1874, according to which the length of service in the army was significantly reduced, had a certain influence on the conduct of physical training in the troops. Under these conditions, more short term service to provide soldiers with the necessary military physical training. Generals M.I. made a great contribution to the development of the methodology and theory of physical training in the Russian army. Dragomirov (1830 - 1905) and A.D. Butovsky (1838-1917). M.I. Dragomirov developed means and methods for training soldiers in gymnastics, bayonet fighting, shooting and military formation. Classes were held in a gymnastics town equipped with equipment; soldiers learned to storm earthen fortifications, front gardens, and ditches. With the direct participation of A.D. Butovsky created many instructions, regulations and programs for physical training in the army and military educational institutions. He led courses in which officers learned gymnastics. Butovsky taught history and methods of physical exercise. He developed guidelines for teaching general developmental and applied physical exercises. However, military-physical training was at the proper level only in those units and divisions of the army and navy, the command of which was in the hands of the progressive part of the Russian officers.

CHAPTER 3 REVIVAL OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES. THE ROLE OF PIERRE DE COUBERTIN

With the advent of the Renaissance, which restored interest in the art of Ancient Greece, people remembered the Olympic Games. At the beginning of the 19th century. The sport gained universal recognition in Europe, and a desire arose to organize something similar to the Olympic Games. Local games organized in Greece in 1859, 1870, 1875 and 1879 left some traces in history. Although they did not produce tangible practical results in the development of the international Olympic movement, they served as an impetus for the formation of the modern Olympic Games.

They began to become interested in the truly ancient Games only when excavations began at Olympia, sleeping under centuries-old layers. The finds were one more amazing than the other! Voices for the revival of great competitions began to be heard more and more often.

And by that time (we are talking about the last quarter of the nineteenth century), timidly, but national and sports international unions... The Olympic Games simply had to happen!

However, this is a very complicated matter: whole mountains of organizational work. And, in addition, a lot of money is needed, uniform rules are needed that, with their firm objectivity, would suit everyone.

The main thing is that we needed a person who would put his life on it. Who would not only be devoted to the idea of ​​Olympism, but also educated, noble, and energetic. And such a person was found.

Pierre de Fredy, Baron de Coubertin (1863-1937) was one of the most interesting, talented, energetic and enthusiastic people of his time. His name is forever associated with the Olympic Games.

After graduating from the Sorbonne University in Paris, Pierre and his friends create sport Club. Football, fencing and rowing are practiced here. From about the same time, Coubertin clearly understood that without physical development there could be no spiritual or moral development.

It was Pierre de Coubertin who became the creator of sports unions for children and the organizer of international competitions. For this alone, his name should have remained in world sports forever. However, the main thing, Coubertin’s main sporting feat was ahead!

Coubertin did not for a minute abandon his dream of the fabulous Olympia, distant from us for many, many centuries.

He was still a very young man when he expressed the idea of ​​reviving the Olympic Games. From that moment on, Pierre de Coubertin subordinated his entire life to the implementation of a great idea. He died at the age of seventy-three, and began to participate in the Olympic Games at twenty-six, that is, almost half a century was devoted to Olympism!

One should not think that Coubertin’s idea immediately captivated everyone. sports world. She had more than enough doubters and opponents... Even more - athletes and sports figures who said that in general this was a good thing, but did not want to do this good thing themselves.

Coubertin travels around many countries of the world, argues, convinces, proves. Writes hundreds of letters to various sports organizations. Take, for example, the first modern Olympic Games, which were held in 1896. in Athens.

The administration of Athens and the Greek government were unable to pay the full costs of hosting the Games. The government did not agree to allocate additional funds, motivating their refusal by the fact that Athenians supposedly have little understanding of sports, that the city does not have the necessary sports facilities for holding competitions, and the financial situation of Greece does not allow inviting representatives from many countries to the festival. Many prominent government and political figures supported the government's statement. For example, the influential politician Stephonos Dratomis wrote that Greece was not able to implement the magnificent idea of ​​​​Pierre de Coubertin and the Games would best be postponed until 1900, as component World Exhibition in Paris. Pierre de Coubertin was forced to write a letter to F. Kemen with a request to find the possibility of holding the 1896 Games on Hungarian territory. However, the Hungarian authorities categorically refused the request due to lack of funds. After these refusals, Pierre de Coubertin still insisted on holding the Games in Greece. According to Pierre de Coubertin, when organizing the Games it was possible to do without any special government expenses and rely only on the help of private individuals. This point of view was shared by the Greek Crown Prince Constantine, who created a special assistance commission. He appointed the former mayor of Athens, Philemon, as secretary general of the commission, and also appealed to the people to donate funds to the Olympics preparation fund. Money began to come not only from the residents of Greece, but also from London, Marseille, Constantinople and other cities where rich Greek colonies existed. With money received from Alexandria from Georg Averoff, the ancient Olympic Stadium. A velodrome and a shooting range were also built in Athens. Placed in the city center tennis courts. Athletes were provided with pavilions with boathouses and locker rooms for rowing competitions. The preparation of the venues for the competitions of the First Olympics was carried out by the Greek National Olympic Committee, which managed to complete all the preparatory work in one year. The International Olympic Committee and national committees of other countries selected participants for the Games, which turned out to be not an easy task. Here is what Pierre de Coubertin wrote about this: “Most of the gymnastic associations in Germany, France and Belgium are filled with the consciousness of their own exclusivity: the members of these associations do not intend to tolerate in the program of the Games those sports that they do not cultivate. They especially hate the so-called "English" sports... Other associations were ready to send their representatives to Athens only after providing them with information as to what interest the intended sports festival... The German press, to top it all off, declared that the Olympics were an exclusively Franco-Greek enterprise. Meanwhile, Mr. Kemen in Hungary, Major Balck in Sweden, General Butovsky in Russia, Professor Sloan in the USA, Lord Ampthill in England and Dr. Gut-Jarkovsky in Bohemia did everything possible to arouse interest in the upcoming competitions." Organizing these Games, Pierre de Coubertin had to take into account political relations and disagreements between countries, and primarily between Germany and Greece.In 1895, a committee for participation in the Olympic Games was formed in Germany. On April 6, 1896, at the Marble Stadium, the King of Greece in In the presence of 80 thousand spectators, he declared the Games of the 1st Olympiad open. “It was an exciting moment. One thousand five hundred and two years ago the Emperor of Theodosius banned the Olympic Games, no doubt believing that by destroying this hated relic of paganism he was furthering the cause of progress. Now the Christian monarch announced the formal repeal of the imperial decree... When the king again took his place, a choir of 150 voices performed the Olympic Ode, written especially for this occasion by the Greek composer Samara,” noted Pierre de Coubertin.

New things are generally difficult to perceive. However, Coubertin spoke so convincingly and passionately about the Olympic Games that French sports figures decided to convene the International Sports Congress and invite representatives of the largest sports powers to it.

And so on June 23, 1894, at the Congress in Paris, the International Olympic Committee - the IOC - was created.

Congress decided: in two years the first Olympic Games will be held! And it was a great victory world sport, the great feat of Pierre de Coubertin!

Not long ago, the world community solemnly and festively celebrated the 100th anniversary of the modern Olympic movement and the formation of the IOC. The United Nations announced the year of the 100th anniversary of the IOC - 1994 - International Year sport and the Olympic ideal. The highest body of the world community also revived the ancient peacekeeping tradition - the UN called on all states to observe the Olympic Truce.

June 23 is traditionally celebrated annually in dozens of countries around the world, including since 1990 in Russia, as Olympic Day.

And yet, the main merit of Pierre de Coubertin is that Olympism, the Olympic movement, can be imagined in the form of a tall and slender building. During the construction of this building, Pierre de Coubertin was not only the “foreman”, but also the chief architect. His inspired thoughts formed the basis of Olympism.

The first and most important of them - sport, culture, science, art must be combined into a strong and beautiful alloy, which will be called Olympic movement.

This idea did not come true immediately. She also had opponents, especially when sport became part of world politics, when, with the help of records, presidents and ministers began to prove to each other whose country was better.

Times are changing, and now the Olympic Games appear before us like a solemn hymn to humanity and humanity!

Coubertin dedicated his life to a special science called sports pedagogy. Its goal is the physical and spiritual development and education of young people through sports. Pierre de Coubertin believed that the new subject would help strengthen, make the French nation and French youth stronger and more resilient. But it turned out that he took care of the youth of the whole world.

Coubertin was not a poet. But he wrote one beautiful poem. It's called "Ode to Sports."

The history of the creation of this work is interesting. In 1912, an art competition was held dedicated to the Olympic Games. Coubertin wrote his famous “Ode to Sport” and submitted it to the jury. But since his authority among people involved in the Olympic movement was enormous, Coubertin submitted his work under a pseudonym. And here is the highest reward, Golden medal, was awarded specifically to Coubertin’s “Ode.”

“Ode to Sports” has nine chapters. The last of them is called “Oh, sports! You are the world! These words have long become popular among Olympians.

"Ode" is written in French. Its translation into Russian is very imperfect.

Coubertin finds simple and beautiful words that are understandable to every athlete. Yes, and to every person. He says that sport is our constant companion in life, a true and reliable friend. If you are faithful to him, you will receive in return the joy that he gives to your spirit and your body. But this is really true: the joy of movement is the joy of life!

"Sport! - exclaims Coubertin. -You are the messenger of peace. As soon as you smile, as soon as you walk across countries with an elastic, joyful gait, calmness spreads over the earth. People across continents and oceans stretch out their hands to each other with the words: “Hello, friend!”

Now everyone knows olympic symbol: five multi-colored interconnected rings representing the unity of the five continents. Before the start of the Games, athletes take the Olympic oath. It is also known about the wonderful tradition of lighting the Olympic flame in Greece, which is carried in a relay race through different countries people devoted to sports carry a flaming torch to the site of the next Olympic Games. All this was conceived by Pierre de Coubertin! No wonder he is called the father of Olympism. For twenty-nine years, Coubertin was the permanent president of the IOC. He became the author of the most important document - the Olympic Charter. Coubertin was buried in the Swiss city of Lausanne not far from the headquarters of the International Olympic Committee. According to Pierre de Coubertin's will, his heart rests in Greece, the homeland of the Games, in the immortal Olympia.

However, there are predecessors of Pierre de Coubertin in history.

One of the first attempts to revive the concept of the “Olympic Games” was made by the Italian statesman of the Renaissance Mateo Palmieri (1405-75), turning to the ideas of the ancient world in his treatise (c. 1450), where he polemicized with church and feudal authorities.

His compatriot and contemporary, doctor and historian of physical education, Hieronymus Mercurialis, devoted several sections to the Olympics in his work “De arte gymnastics,” speaking out against the use of ancient gymnastics for competitive purposes.

In 1516, the lawyer Johannes Aquila organized “demonstration Olympic performances” in Baden. The English playwright Thomas Kyd (1544-90) showed scenes from the history of Olympism from the theater stage.

Using the support of the English King James I, the royal prosecutor Robert Dover organized a series of competitions called the Olympic Games in 1604. Anyone could participate in competitions for athletes, wrestlers, and equestrians, regardless of gender or class. The games were accompanied by a kind of “cultural program”, which included hunting, dancing, singing, music, and chess. The competition became very popular and was held for almost 100 years. The great humanists of the 18th century paid great attention to the ideas of Olympism. F. Schiller and J. J. Rousseau. The Englishman Gilbert West (1703-1756) was the first to devote a doctoral dissertation to the history of the Olympics, ending it with words of hope for the revival of the ideas of Olympism. For eight years (1772-1779), the German Duke L. Friedrich held competitions in a stadium specially built on his estate in Dessau according to the program of the ancient Olympic Games, organized in honor of his wife’s birthday.

In the 1830s. in Sweden, near the city of Helsingborg, competitions called the “Olympic Games” were held; in 1844, similar competitions were organized in Montreal; in 1859, by special decree of the Greek king Otto I of Bavaria, athletics competitions and an exhibition of works of fine art were held at the ancient stadium restored in Athens and handicrafts. The second Olympics (in 1863) did not take place due to the deposition of the king, but later, in 1870, 1875, 1888, 1889, four more similar tournaments were held. The French public figure, historian and writer, Baron Pierre de Coubertin in 1883 made a proposal to regularly hold world sports competitions called the Olympic Games.

CONCLUSION

If we analyze all the systems considered, it should be said that their authors underestimated such means of influence on a person, on his personal properties, as the word of the teacher, music, and the conditions for conducting classes. The educational capabilities of not only individual groups of exercises, but also gymnastics as a whole were not always taken into account.

The peoples of Russia used various games, exercises and competitions not only as fun, but also as one of the means of preparing for the fight against their internal and external enemies.

With the help of gymnastic exercises, soldiers developed muscle strength, endurance, flexibility, the ability to feel (development of sensory organs), think and act decisively and boldly, and developed the skills and abilities necessary in life and military conditions.

Pierre de Coubertin finds simple and beautiful words that every athlete can understand. Yes, and to every person. He says that sport is our constant companion in life, a true and reliable friend. If you are faithful to him, you will receive in return the joy that he gives to your spirit and your body. But this is really true: the joy of movement is the joy of life!

Now everyone knows the Olympic symbol: five multi-colored connected rings, representing the unity of the five continents. Before the start of the Games, athletes take the Olympic oath. We also know about the wonderful tradition of lighting the Olympic flame in Greece, which is carried in a relay through different countries by people devoted to sports, carrying the flaming torch to the site of the Games of the next Olympics. All this was conceived by Pierre de Coubertin! No wonder he is called the father of Olympism.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

1. V.V. Stolbov, book / Physical culture and sport in the 18th century. and the first half of the 19th century. / V.V. Stolbov, History and organization of physical culture and sports. – M., 1982. – 68 – 70 s.

2. S. Knyazkov, book / Nobility of the times of Peter the Great / Knyazkov S., The Time of Peter the Great. – M., 1991. – 397 – 408 p.

3. V.V. Stolbov, book / Physical education and sport in folk life / Stolbov V.V., History and organization of physical culture and sports. – M., 1982. – 71 – 74 p.

4. V.V. Stolbov, book / Physical culture and sport in the second half of the 19th century. and the first half of the 20th century. / Stolbov V.V., History and organization of physical culture and sports. – M., 1982. – 77 – 79 p.

5. S. Knyazkov, book / The Time of Peter the Great. - M.: Planet, 1991. – 712 p.

6. N.A. Kolesnikova, manual / View from the podium. - M.: Soviet Russia, 1987. – 192 p.

7. B.A. Lisitsyn, textbook for university students / Sports and religious organizations. – M.: Physical culture and sport, 1985. – 80 p.

8. V.V. Stolbov, textbook / History and organization of physical culture and sports. – M.: Education, 1982. – 287 p.

9. Olivova Vera, a manual for students / People and games: at the origins modern sports. - M.: Physical culture and sport, 1985. – 240 p.

10. N.I. Pavlenko, book / “Peter the Great” - M.: 1998. – 183 – 186 p.

11. B. Khavin, textbook / All about the Olympic Games. M., 1979 – 23, 31, 52 p.

12. Olympic Encyclopedia. M., 1980. – 222 – 228 p.

13. L. Kuhn, book / General history of physical culture and sports. M., 1982.

14. Your Olympic textbook. M., 1996. – 44, 49, 63 p.

GERMAN GYMNASTICS (Tournain) - the original national form of physical organization. education in Germany. Philanthropins popularized physics. education in the German states, but did not achieve universal recognition of it. Recognition came only during the years of national upsurge brought about by Napoleon's aggressive policy. After the defeat of the Prussian army (1806) and the complete surrender of the Prussian Junkers (nobility) to Napoleon, the German bourgeois intelligentsia began to put together forces to resist the aggressor. In his “Speeches to the German Nation” (1807 - 1808), the idealist philosopher Fichte (1768 - 1814) came up with a plan for universal national education. This plan provided for the formation of will, character and physical strength. student development. The ardent nationalist Friedrich Jahn (1778 - 1852) also came up with his plan. In the book "The German Nationality" he argued that "physical exercise is the means of the most perfect German national education" and that sports competitions. on national holidays will give every German the opportunity to feel not only joy sporting victory, but also the joy of the unity of the people around the king, leading the nation to feats of arms. Fichte and Jan put forward plans for national education that were aimed not at eliminating the feudal system, but at strengthening it on a new basis.

The prominent statesman Karl Stein carried out certain bourgeois reforms in feudal Prussia (1808 - 1809) and began to demand such an education, which would not only be reduced to rote learning educational material, but also to “so that the national and military spirit awakens among the people and so that knowledge of military affairs is spread through gymnastic exercises.”

At the same time, the bourgeois political society "Tugendbund" ("Union of Virtue") was created. The society fought for the spread of culture among the people, including physical education. culture. Each member swore an oath that he would encourage his children to “practice gymnastics, especially exercises in the art of war, and would insist on the introduction of these exercises in all schools.” The society has developed a plan for establishing public institutions for individuals. exercises. The draft charter of the institutions stated that: “... a student cannot join high school, an apprentice to become a master, a servant to become a master, a single person to marry, if he does not confirm his dexterity in physical exercises with the appropriate certificates or tests." The "Tugendbund" created gymnastic groups of young men, who were engaged not only in gymnastics, but also in military exercises. Such activities Napoleon did not like the society, and he gave instructions to dissolve the Tugendbund (1809).

The Society of Friends of Pestalozzi achieved much more. In 1810, it created a circle of gymnastics enthusiasts in Berlin at the Plamann School. The young teacher Friesen and his friends not only studied physics that were known at that time. exercises, but also experimentally selected the most useful ones, invented new ones and determined the sequence and methodology for their development. In this circle, the foundation of German apparatus gymnastics (Turnkunst) was laid and the designs of the main apparatus were created. Yang took over the distribution of gymnastics. He organized mass outings of students outside the city to conduct military games and apparatus exercises at the site in Hasenheide. In 1811 the circle was reorganized into the Turnverein - a mass amateur gymnastics organization. Such organizations arose in other cities. After Napoleon's defeat in Russia, the Prussian king called the Germans to arms (1813). Among the volunteers were gymnasts from the Turnverein. During the military campaigns against Napoleon, the Tourneurs became acquainted with certain progressive achievements of the French bourgeois revolution and began to oppose the remnants of feudalism in the German states. Speaking about the plans and dreams of the leading tourniers and bourgeoisie, Engels wrote: “These were the foggy impulses at the Wartburg celebrations, when souls were aflame with courage and when, as they sing to a French tune, a young man strived into a seething battle in order to lay his head beyond his native land.”

The progressive plans of the Tourneurs did not correspond to the aspirations of the feudal reaction, and in 1820 Tourneur organizations were banned. They were revived in 1842. The Tourneurs took part in the revolution of 1848 - 1849 and actively fought for the reunification of the German states.

From physical funds. education tourners cultivated ch. arr. exercises on and with apparatus, as well as running, jumping, throwing, paramilitary terrain games, wrestling and swimming. Methodologically, Turnkunst at that time did not rely sufficiently on the data of the natural and pedagogical sciences. Yes, competitors. in gymnastics were carried out not for the clarity and beauty of the movement, but for the greatest quantity. times non-stop repetition of it. Ian himself recalled with admiration the tournament players who performed up to 132 rotations in a row on the crossbar on their knees. Later, stylization of the exercises was carried out; began to demand mathematical accuracy in the straightness and rectangularity of movements and body positions at the time of performing the exercise. It was believed that stylization complicates the process of mastering exercises and requires much more willpower from the gymnast, and therefore strengthens the will more.

By the middle of the 19th century. gymnastic equipment was adapted by Spiess for mass classes with schoolchildren, and the teaching methodology was subordinated to the tasks of educating not freedom-loving, but unquestioningly obedient subjects of the king (drill).

Literature: Lesgaft P. F.. Pedagogical works, vol. I. M., 1951, pp. 221 - 259. Toropov N. I. Gymnastics in the service of the Prussian aggressors (Essays on the history of physical culture, issue III, M., 1948).

Sources:

1. Encyclopedic dictionary of physical culture and sports. Volume 2. Ch. ed. - G.I. Kukushkin. M., "Physical education and sport", 1962. 388 p.