SFW - jokes, humor, girls, accidents, cars, photos of celebrities and much more. Equipment of ancient warriors: legionnaire of the era of Trajan

Peter Connolly (Translation: A.V. Kozlenko)

Peter Connolly. The Roman Fighting Technique Deduced from Armor and Weaponry

This article assumes that the Roman way of fighting can be inferred from an analysis of armor and weapons, especially where it is possible to depict how they were modified to better suit the needs placed on them. A similar change can be demonstrated in archaeological material from the first century of the Empire, when the data on helmets and swords is quite numerous.

During the last centuries of the Republic, the Italo-Celtic Montefortino type of helmet (Fig.), with a occipital visor at eye level and cheekpieces covering the ears, became the standard type of helmet worn by legionnaires. In Central Italy, it was first used as a means of protection against the cutting blows of Celtic swords. With the conquest of Gaul and the concentration of the western legions along the Rhine at the end of the 1st century. BC, Montefortino was replaced by another, very similar Celtic helmet of the Culus type, which differs from the previous one in the absence of a solid pommel in the form of a cone (Fig.). The reason for this change was purely technical, as the Kulus type helmet was lighter and easier to manufacture. Little by little, over the course of several decades after the helmet was borrowed, its back plate increased, and an additional visor appeared on the front side at the level of the eyebrows (Fig.). These changes improved the protective properties of the helmet and did not make significant changes in its functions.

The group of helmets of the Montefortino and Culus types can tell us little about Roman combat technology. Since the Romans considered the backplate to be something natural, it is not possible to determine exactly whether the reason for its location at eye level was functional or traditional.

Simultaneously with the spread of Kulus type helmets, approximately in the third quarter of the 1st century. BC, the Romans introduced another type of helmet. Since, borrowing as a model the Celtic helmet of the Port Bay-Nidau ​​type (Fig.), the Romans adapted it to their needs, analysis of the changes allows us to identify the differences in the needs placed on the helmet. There are at least six finds of pre-Roman helmets of this type (Connolly 1989a). All of them have certain permanent characteristics: an attached backplate with several stiffening ribs along its rear part, a decoration in the form of raised eyebrows on the frontal part of the helmet and a narrow visor at the front along the lower part of the rim. Some helmets have cheekpieces that cover the ears; others have a small round cutout between the cheekpiece and the backplate for the ears.

This type of helmet was used by warriors who fought in an upright position and protected against blows from slashing weapons. The straight stance is derived from the shape of the butt plate. The stiffening ribs on it serve to weaken the force of a downward strike before it reaches the neck. The eyebrows and the visor under them were also intended to weaken the force of the cutting blows inflicted by the long swords of the Celts.

The Roman modification of this type of helmet speaks volumes. While retaining most of the Celtic details, the Romans changed the basic structure of the helmet, raising the backplate to eye level and increasing its size. In an effort to preserve the stiffening ribs on the back plate, the craftsmen began to mint them on the back of the helmet dome. They also considered it necessary to abolish the visor on the rim of the helmet and instead began to rivet a stronger additional visor on its frontal part.

Three early examples of Roman helmets of this type have survived, and all of them are worthy of careful attention. The first of them is probably the earliest (Fig.). It was recently found in Aich, 25 km south of Mainz, Germany. This helmet had Celtic features - stiffening ribs on the back of the dome and eyebrows, but also a wide backplate at eye level and an attached visor. It is interesting that this helmet was later redesigned and after that it became quite consistent with the early helmets of the Imperial Gallic type (Fig.). The cheekpieces of the early version were set back so much that they covered the ears. The top of them was also covered by a back plate. This is a common feature of early wide-backed helmets of both Celtic and Roman types. Later, the cheekpieces were moved forward, and the semicircular cutout in the lower part of the rim, adapted for the ears, was equipped with attached ears for protection. This allowed the butt pad to be lowered for a more complete fit. back neck.

The next of these three helmets was found at Hedel, near Nijmegen in Holland (Fig.). The helmet had the usual Celtic features, eyebrows and ribs on the back of the head, and also prominent rivet heads decorated in a Celtic style, suggesting that it was made in a Celtic workshop. Although the backplate has not been preserved, traces indicate that it was at eye level. The helmet had an attached visor and a semicircular cutout for the ears at the bottom of the rim in front of the backplate.

The third helmet comes from Berg in Dalseweg in Nijmegen, Holland (Fig.). It is similar in every way to the Hedel example except for the protruding rivet heads. It still retained cheekpieces that were identical to the earlier Celtic type. Since this shape later became standard for Roman cheekpieces, it can be assumed that the helmets from Hedel and Eich had cheekpieces of a similar type.

These helmets raise a number of questions: Why did the Romans feel it necessary to change the original, very practical design of Celtic helmets by raising the backplate to eye level and the visor to forehead level? Why didn't they just make the butt plate and visor bigger? After all, some Hellenistic types of helmets already had a significant visor. The answer to be given assumes that these changes were required by the Roman method of combat.

The original version of the helmet from Aich was designed to protect a fighter who was accustomed to fighting while bent in a lower stance (Fig.). Such a fighter must look up and protect himself from blows to the head, which, sliding along the helmet, can hit him in the face or shoulders and top part backs. This is a tactic used by short fighters who stab their taller opponents in the stomach in battle. With such tactics, the deep backplate on the helmet should have limited the possibility of tilting the head, and the visor at eye level would have limited the visibility sector.

The most common sword of this time was the long-pointed Mainz type (Connolly 1989b, 25-6). It was an ideal piercing sword, whose long, reinforced tip was capable of piercing even chain mail. It was less suitable for chopping, since the widest part of the blade was located from its end to a third of the total length of the sword. A slash delivered by the lower third of the blade could bend or break its tip.

The oval scutum, with a thickened central part, further reinforced by a spindle-shaped wooden umbo, and thinner edges capable of absorbing the force of the cutting blows of a sword, was ideally suited for this type of combat, so effective against the oldest enemies of the Romans, the Celts (Connolly 1981, 132).

Although few of the so-called Imperial Gallic helmets are precisely dated and therefore particularly difficult to develop a reliable chronology for, it appears that during the century that followed their adoption there was a gradual deepening of the occipital portion of the helmet's dome, marking a return to the original Celtic design (Robinson 1975, 45-61). The backplate at eye level of the early model of the Aich helmet in the fighter’s lower stance protects not only the neck, but also the shoulders and ears. If the backrest is pulled down, ear protection must be fitted to protect your ears. This was illustrated by a later modification of the helmet from Aich. To cover the ears that were above the level of the back of the head, the cheekpieces were also moved forward, which at this time were provided with an additional extension to protect the neck strip under the ears (Robinson 1975, 78-9). All this suggests that fighters began to fight in a more upright position and needed additional protection for exposed areas of the face and neck.

Since the large majority of Imperial Gallic helmets originate from the Rhine, it is necessary to determine whether these changes correspond to general development trends or are a reaction to local problems. The evidence is minimal, but the rediscovered Ossorio helmet, formerly in the private collection of General Adolfo Leon Ossorio and now on display in the Museum of Santo Domingo, probably comes from the Iberian Peninsula (Bennett 1989, 235-45). This helmet has many Celtic features, suggesting the possibility of earlier origins, but also has a very deep backplate. On the other hand, the cross-reinforced dome of the helmet from Bersobis in Romania could not have been lost earlier than 85. Despite its late date, it has a backplate at eye level (Fig.). This helmet probably retained its original shape because in this region the Romans fought the Dacians, whose formidable weapons were the phalxes, a slashing weapon by definition. This suggests that there was no general unity of development, and that different legions adapted combat techniques to the prevailing conditions. Caesar in his Notes on the Civil War notes that Pompey's legions, during for long years who were in Spain, adopted their maneuverable battle tactics from the local inhabitants ( Bellum Civile 1.44).

The Niedermürmter helmet (Robinson 1975, 72), located at the very bottom of the period's chronological axis, has a very deep backplate, which makes the use of a low post impossible. This helmet also has the largest neck section of any Roman helmet yet known. The one who wore this helmet was clearly afraid of blows to the head and shoulders. It has been suggested that this helmet belonged to a horseman, but the huge backplate casts doubt on these hypotheses. If a rider wearing such a helmet fell from his horse, the backrest could break his neck upon impact.

In conclusion, it seems likely that the predominance of helmets with a backplate at eye level from the 4th century. BC. to the middle of the 1st century. AD is not only a consequence of their suitability for fighting in a low position using a short thrusting sword. In the middle of the 1st century. AD many German legions changed their low stance to a more upright one. The introduction of the Pompeian type sword (Connolly 1989, 27), which is better suited for cutting than the Mainz type but, due to its short point, is less effective for thrusting, the spread of inlaid carapace and the rectangular scutum were also part of these changes. It would be a mistake to consider these changes uniform. Where the Romans fought the sword-wielding Celts, the old method of combat was used; where their enemies, like the Germans, were armed with spears, an upright stance was more necessary.

With distribution in the 2nd century. spathas and a flat oval shield, Roman infantrymen had to use an upright stance and fight like the Celts. The face needed more protection against spear blows, the shoulders and back less. As a result, it is necessary to reconsider the established view on the characteristics of infantry and cavalry helmets. Previously, it was assumed that helmets with a deep back section and a small backplate were best suited for the rider. On this basis, finds of helmets from the 1st – early 2nd centuries. demonstrate the ratio of ten infantry helmets to one cavalry helmet. In the II century. this ratio is reversed, in which there are many cavalry helmets, and practically no infantry ones. It should be possible that the majority of the so-called. cavalry helmets are actually infantry helmets. This fits perfectly with the changed way of fighting, since the cavalry type of helmet provides better protection from an enemy armed with a spear. A parallel should be drawn with Greek hoplite helmets, especially with the Corinthian and Thracian types, providing full protection for face. Iron cavalry helmets of types E-F according to Robinson (Robinson 1975, 96-8), due to the simplicity of decoration, have more common features with the helmets of legionaries of the 1st century than with early cavalry helmets and should be defined as infantry helmets.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bennett, J. 1989 A Roman helmet in the Dominican Republic, in C. van Driel-Murray (ed.), . British Archaeological Reports S-476 (Oxford), 235-45.

Connolly, P. 1981 Greece and Rome at War(London).

Connolly, P. 1984 Hellenistic Warfare, Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. II, part I, Plates (Cambridge), 81-90.

Connolly, P. 1989a A Note on the Origin of the Imperial Gallic Helmet, in C. van Driel-Murray (ed.), Roman Military Equipment: the sources of evidence. Proceedings of the fifth Roman military equipment conference. British Archaeological Reports S-476 (Oxford), 227-34.

Connolly, P. 1989b Swords and Hilt Weapons(London), 20-9.

Oldenstein, J. 1988 Zwei romische Helme aus Eich, Mainzer Zeitschrift 83, 257-70.

Robinson, H.R. 1975 The Armor of Imperial Rome(London).

Ypey, J. 1982 Een Romeinse ijzeren helm uit het begin van onze jaartelling, gevonden bij Hedel (Gld.), Westerheem 31, 101-03.

Publication:
Roman Frontier Studies 1989: Proceedings of the XVth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies, eds. Valerie A. Maxfield and Michael J. Dobson (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1991), pp. 358-363; XLegio © 2010

Trajan, who ruled Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called “five good emperors.” The emperor's contemporaries would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan “the best ruler” (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words upon their accession to “be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan” (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached largest sizes throughout its history.

The equipment of Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army harmoniously combined with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of the Roman legionary infantryman of the early 2nd century AD in the interactive special project Warspot.

Helmet

At the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic model of a helmet that had previously been used in Gaul, began to produce combat headbands with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from attacks from above. chopping blows, and large cheekpieces equipped with chased decorations. The front dome of the helmet was decorated with embossed decorations in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Legion of Larks (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.

One more characteristic feature This type of helmet had cutouts for the ears, covered with bronze plates on top. Bronze decorations and plates are also characteristic, looking very effective against the background of the light surface of the polished iron of the helmet. Elegant and extremely functional, this type of helmet of the Gallic series became the predominant model of combat headgear in the Roman army by the end of the 1st century. Based on his model, weapons workshops located in Italy, as well as in other provinces of the Roman Empire, began to forge their products. An additional feature, which apparently appeared during Trajan's Dacian Wars, was an iron crosspiece, which was used to strengthen the dome of the helmet from above. This detail was supposed to give even greater strength to the helmet and protect it from the blows of the terrible Dacian scythes.

Plate armor

The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliary infantry and cavalry wear chain mail or scale armor. But such a division is probably not true. Contemporary to the Column reliefs, depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissia show legionnaires wearing chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in border forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that soldiers in these units wore lorica.

The name lorica segmentata is a modern term for plate armor, known from numerous images of the 1st–3rd centuries. Its Roman name, if there was one, remains unknown. The oldest finds of plates of this armor come from excavations at Mount Kalkriese in Germany, identified as the site of the battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Thus, its appearance and spread relate to final stage the reign of Augustus, if not to an earlier time. Various points of view have been expressed regarding the origin of this type of armor. Some derive it from the solid armor worn by the Gallic gladiators, the Crupellars, while others see it as an eastern development, better suited to holding the arrows of Parthian archers in comparison with traditional chain mail. It is also unclear the extent to which plate armor was widespread in the ranks of the Roman army: whether soldiers wore it everywhere or only in some special units. The extent of the distribution of finds of individual pieces of armor rather testifies in favor of the first hypothesis, however, there can be no talk of uniformity of protective weapons in the style of images of reliefs of Trajan’s Column.

In the absence of real finds about the structure of plate armor, many different hypotheses were put forward. Finally, in 1964, during excavations at a border fort in Corbridge (Britain), two well-preserved examples of armor were found. This allowed the British archaeologist H. Russell Robinson to reconstruct the Lorica segmentata of the late 1st century, as well as draw certain conclusions about the structure of the armor of a later period, previously found during excavations at Newstead. Both armor belonged to the so-called laminar type of armor. Horizontal stripes, slightly funnel-shaped, were riveted from the inside onto a leather belt. The plates overlapped slightly on top of one another and formed an extremely flexible metal covering for the body. Two semicircular sections made up the right and left parts of the armor. With the help of straps they were fastened on the back and chest. A separate composite section was used to cover the upper chest. Using straps or hooks, the bib was connected to the corresponding side half. Flexible shoulder pads were attached to the breastplate on top. To put on the armor, it was necessary to put your hands through the side openings and fasten it on the chest, like a vest.

Lamellar armor was durable, flexible, lightweight and at the same time a very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.

Bracers

In the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of Eastern origin and consists of a vertical row of plates riveted from the inside onto a belt the full length of the arm. This type of protective equipment was rarely used in the Roman army, but judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to bear big losses from the blows of Dacian scythes, he ordered to protect the hands of his warriors with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.

Sword

In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and a rather short point became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportions of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting down an enemy who was not wearing protective armor. Its shape was already very vaguely reminiscent of the original gladius, the characteristic feature of which was a long and thin tip. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, the enemies of which were now the barbarians - the Germans and Dacians.

Legionnaires carried a sword in a sheath of a frame design. On the front side they were decorated with bronze slotted plates with geometric patterns and figured images. The scabbard had two pairs of clips, on the sides of which side rings were attached. Through them passed the end of the belt of the sword belt, split in two, on which the scabbard with the sword was suspended. The lower end of the belt passed under the belt and connected to the lower ring, the upper end passed over the belt to the upper ring. This fastening ensured reliable fixation of the scabbard in a vertical position and made it possible to quickly grab the sword without holding the scabbard with your hand.

Dagger

On the left side, on the waist belt, Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated tip. The length of the blade could reach 30–35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a sheath of a frame design. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass, or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was suspended from the belt using a pair of straps passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upward, and the weapon was constantly ready for combat use.

Pilum

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionnaires wear a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by archaeological finds, its design has not changed from earlier times.

Some soldiers who were distinguished by great physical strength, supplied the pilum shaft with spherical lead attachments, which increased the weight of the weapon and, accordingly, increased the severity of the blow it inflicted. These attachments are known from pictorial monuments II – III centuries, but have not yet been found among real archaeological finds.

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Shield

At the end of the 1st century BC, the upper and lower edges of the oval shield, known from images of the Republic era, were straightened, and by the middle of the century the side edges also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of earlier times, also continued to be used.

The design of the shield remained the same as before. Its dimensions, judging by the proportions of the warriors’ figures, were 1×0.5 m. These figures correspond well to archaeological finds of later times. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks, glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood, judging by the surviving rivets of the umbos, was about 6 mm.

The outside of the shield was covered with leather and richly painted. Subjects depicted included laurel wreaths, lightning bolts of Jupiter, and the coat of arms of individual legions. Along the perimeter, the edges of the shield were lined with bronze clips so that the wood would not be chipped by blows from enemy swords. The shield was held in the hand by the handle formed by a transverse wooden plank. In the center of the shield field, a semicircular cutout was made, into which the hand holding the handle was inserted. From the outside, the cutout was covered with a bronze or iron umbon, which, as a rule, was richly decorated with engraved images. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield was approximately 7.5 kg.

Tunic

The soldier's tunic has not changed much from previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric approximately 1.5 x 1.3 m, sewn at the sides and at the neck. The opening for the head and neck remained wide enough, so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could pull down one of its sleeves, completely exposing right shoulder and a hand. At the waist, the tunic was gathered into folds and secured with a belt. A highly belted tunic that exposed the knees was considered a sign of the military.

In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, with the lower one made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions wore bright white tunics. To decorate the tunics, two stripes of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.

Trousers

The Romans, like the Greeks, considered pants an attribute of barbarism. During the cold season, they wore woolen wrappings on their legs. Short trousers to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who served en masse in the Roman army since the times of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by infantrymen of the auxiliary troops, who were also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.

The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear pants, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for long periods of time are depicted wearing tight and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for this clothing spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short pants are already worn by all categories of troops.

Tie

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by the armor. Another purpose of the tie is made clear by its later name “sudarion”, which comes from the Latin sudor - “sweat”.

Penula

In inclement weather or during the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. One of the most common cloak models was the penula. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer finish. The shape of the penule resembled half an oval, the straight sides of which met at the front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.

In some sculptures there is no cut. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect from bad weather, it was equipped with a deep hood. In a civilian lazern, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed soldiers to freely use their hands without taking off their cloak. In frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.

Kaligi

The soldiers' footwear were heavy Kaliga boots. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick cowhide. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps that covered the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided the feet with good ventilation.

The sole consisted of 3 layers stitched together. For greater strength, it was reinforced from below with iron nails. It took 80–90 nails to tamp one shoe, and the weight of a pair of nails reached 1.3–1.5 kg. The nails on the sole were arranged in a certain pattern, reinforcing those parts of it that were more worn out during the hike.

According to the observations of modern reenactors, the nailed shoes wore well on dirt roads and in the fields, but in the mountains and on the cobblestones of city streets they slipped on the stones. In addition, the nails on the sole gradually wore out and required constant replacement. One pair of caligas was enough for approximately 500–1000 km of march, while 10 percent of the nails had to be changed every 100 km of the route. Thus, in two or three weeks of march, the Roman legion lost about 10 thousand nails.

Belt

The belt was an important part of Roman men's clothing. Boys wore a belt as a sign of reaching adulthood. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved plates. For a decorative effect, the overlays were sometimes coated with silver and equipped with enamel inserts.

Roman belts from the end of the 1st century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century AD had a kind of apron made of 4–8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal decorations. Apparently, this detail served a purely decorative function and was worn for the sound effect it created. A dagger and sometimes a wallet with small money were hung from the belt. The Romans, as a rule, wore a sword on a shoulder belt.

Leggings

Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on monuments of the 1st and 2nd centuries were often depicted wearing greaves, the wearing of which was something of a symbol of their rank. Their leggings were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral patterns. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.

During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from blows from Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamklisi. Roman soldiers in reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in sculptures and frescoes of later times. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffening rib, devoid of any decoration. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.

Trajan, who ruled Rome from 98 to 117 AD, went down in history as a warrior emperor. Under his leadership, the Roman Empire reached its maximum power, and the stability of the state and the absence of repression during his reign allowed historians to deservedly consider Trajan the second of the so-called “five good emperors.” The emperor's contemporaries would probably agree with this assessment. The Roman Senate officially proclaimed Trajan “the best ruler” (optimus princeps), and subsequent emperors were guided by him, receiving parting words upon their accession to “be more successful than Augustus, and better than Trajan” (Felicior Augusto, melior Traiano). During the reign of Trajan, the Roman Empire conducted several successful military campaigns and reached the largest size in its entire history.

The equipment of Roman legionnaires during the reign of Trajan was distinguished by functionality. The centuries-old military experience accumulated by the Roman army harmoniously combined with the military traditions of the peoples conquered by the Romans. We invite you to take a closer look at the weapons and equipment of a Roman legionary infantryman from the early 2nd century AD.

1. Helmet

At the beginning of the 1st century AD, Roman gunsmiths on the Upper Rhine, taking as a basis the Celtic model of a helmet that had previously been used in Gaul, began to produce combat headbands with a deep solid forged iron dome, a wide backplate to protect the neck, and an iron visor in front, additionally covering the face from attacks from above. chopping blows, and large cheekpieces equipped with chased decorations. The front dome of the helmet was decorated with embossed decorations in the form of eyebrows or wings, which allowed some researchers to attribute the first such helmets to the warriors of the Legion of Larks (V Alaudae), recruited by Julius Caesar among the Romanized Gauls.

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, soldiers are depicted with ties. Their function is to protect the upper part of the tunic from friction and damage caused by the armor. Another purpose of the tie is made clear by its later name “sudarion”, which comes from the Latin sudor - “sweat”.

Penula

In inclement weather or during the cold season, soldiers wore raincoats over their clothes and armor. One of the most common cloak models was the penula. It was woven from coarse sheep or even goat wool. The civilian version of the cloak, called lacerna, had a finer finish. The shape of the penule resembled half an oval, the straight sides of which met at the front and were fastened with two pairs of buttons.
In some sculptures there is no cut. In this case, the penula, like a modern poncho, had the shape of an oval with a central hole and was worn over the head. To protect from bad weather, it was equipped with a deep hood. In a civilian lazern, such a hood, as a rule, was attached. The length of the penula reached the knees. Being wide enough, it allowed soldiers to freely use their hands without taking off their cloak. In frescoes and color images, the military cloak is usually brown.

The reliefs of Trajan's Column, erected in Rome in 113 to commemorate the conquest of Dacia, depict legionnaires dressed in plate armor, the so-called. lorica segmentata, while auxiliary infantry and cavalry wear chain mail or scale armor. But such a division is probably not true. Contemporary to the Column reliefs, depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissia show legionnaires wearing chain mail, and archaeological finds of pieces of plate armor in border forts occupied by auxiliary units indicate that soldiers in these units wore lorica.

Lamellar armor was durable, flexible, lightweight and at the same time a very reliable means of protection. In this capacity, he existed in the Roman army from the beginning of the 1st to the middle of the 3rd century AD.

In the reliefs of Trajan's Trophy at Adamiklissi, some Roman soldiers wear bracers to protect their forearms and hands. This piece of equipment is of Eastern origin and consists of a vertical row of plates riveted from the inside onto a belt the full length of the arm. This type of protective equipment was rarely used in the Roman army, but judging by the images, it was worn by gladiators. When Trajan's troops began to suffer heavy losses from the blows of the Dacian scythes, he ordered the hands of his soldiers to be protected with the same armor. Most likely, this was a short-term measure, and in the future this piece of equipment did not take root in the army.

In the middle - second half of the 1st century, a sword with a blade 40–55 cm long, 4.8 to 6 cm wide and a rather short point became widespread in the Roman army. Judging by the proportions of the blade, it was mainly intended for cutting down an enemy who was not wearing protective armor. Its shape was already very vaguely reminiscent of the original gladius, the characteristic feature of which was a long and thin tip. These modifications of weapons corresponded to the new political situation on the borders of the empire, the enemies of which were now the barbarians - the Germans and Dacians.

On the left side, on the waist belt, Roman legionnaires continued to wear a dagger (not visible in the illustration). Its wide blade was forged from iron, had a stiffening rib, symmetrical blades and an elongated tip. The length of the blade could reach 30–35 cm, width - 5 cm. The dagger was worn in a sheath of a frame design. The front side of the scabbard was usually richly inlaid with silver, brass, or decorated with black, red, yellow or green enamel. The scabbard was suspended from the belt using a pair of straps passed through two pairs of side rings. With such a suspension, the handle was always directed upward, and the weapon was always ready for combat use.

On the reliefs of Trajan's Column, Roman legionnaires wear a pilum, which at this time retains its significance as a first-strike weapon. Judging by archaeological finds, its design has not changed from earlier times.

The belt was an important part of Roman men's clothing. Boys wore a belt as a sign of reaching adulthood. The military wore wide leather belts, which distinguished them from civilians. The belt was worn over the armor and richly decorated with bronze relief or engraved plates. For a decorative effect, the overlays were sometimes coated with silver and equipped with enamel inserts.

Roman belts from the end of the 1st century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century AD had a kind of apron made of 4–8 belts, covered with bronze overlays and ending with terminal decorations. Apparently, this detail served a purely decorative function and was worn for the sound effect it created. A dagger and sometimes a wallet with small money were hung from the belt. The Romans, as a rule, wore a sword on a shoulder belt.

At the end of the 1st century BC, the upper and lower edges of the oval shield, known from images of the Republic era, were straightened, and by the middle of the century the side edges also became straight. The shield thus acquired a quadrangular shape, known from the reliefs on Trajan's Column. At the same time, oval-shaped shields, known from images of earlier times, also continued to be used.

9. Tunic

The soldier's tunic has not changed much from previous times. As before, it was cut from two rectangular pieces of woolen fabric approximately 1.5 x 1.3 m, sewn at the sides and at the neck. The opening for the head and neck remained wide enough, so that during field work, for greater freedom of movement, soldiers could pull down one of its sleeves, completely exposing the right shoulder and arm. At the waist, the tunic was gathered into folds and secured with a belt. A highly belted tunic that exposed the knees was considered a sign of the military.

In the cold season, some soldiers wore two tunics, with the lower one made of linen or fine wool. The Romans did not know any specific statutory color of clothing. Most soldiers wore tunics made of undyed wool. Those who were richer could wear tunics of red, green or blue. In ceremonial conditions, officers and centurions wore bright white tunics. To decorate the tunics, two stripes of bright color were sewn on their sides - the so-called claves. The usual cost of tunics was 25 drachmas, and this amount was deducted from the soldier's salary.

Trousers

The Romans, like the Greeks, considered pants an attribute of barbarism. During the cold season, they wore woolen wrappings on their legs. Short trousers to protect the skin of the thighs from horse sweat were worn by Gallic and German horsemen, who served en masse in the Roman army since the times of Caesar and Augustus. In the cold season, they were also worn by infantrymen of the auxiliary troops, who were also recruited from among the non-Romanized subjects of the empire.
The legionnaires depicted on Trajan's Column still do not wear pants, but Emperor Trajan himself and senior officers who rode for long periods of time are depicted wearing tight and short breeches. During the first half of the 2nd century, the fashion for this clothing spread among all categories of troops, and on the reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, short pants are already worn by all categories of troops.

10. Leggings

Leggings were part of the protective armor that covered the legs from the knee to the instep of the foot, that is, they covered that part of them that was not usually covered by a shield. Officers and centurions on monuments of the 1st and 2nd centuries were often depicted wearing greaves, the wearing of which was something of a symbol of their rank. Their leggings were decorated with chasing with the image of the head of Medusa in the knee part, the side surface was decorated with tufts of lightning and floral patterns. On the contrary, ordinary soldiers were usually depicted without greaves at this time.
During the era of the Dacian Wars, greaves returned to military equipment to protect the legs of soldiers from blows from Dacian scythes. Although the soldiers in the reliefs of Trajan's Column do not wear greaves, they are present in depictions of Trajan's Trophy at Adamklisi. Roman soldiers in reliefs wear one or two greaves. This detail of military equipment is also present in sculptures and frescoes of later times. Archaeological finds of leggings are simple iron plates 35 cm long, with a longitudinal stiffening rib, devoid of any decoration. They cover the leg only up to the knee; perhaps a separate piece of armor was used to protect the knee itself. For fastening on the leg, the leggings are equipped with four pairs of rings through which a belt was passed.

The soldiers' footwear were heavy Kaliga boots. The shoe blank was cut from one piece of thick cowhide. The toes in the shoe remained open, and the straps that covered the sides of the foot and ankle were cut through, which provided the feet with good ventilation.