Who are the founders of the German gymnastics system? German gymnastics. Physical culture and sports in the GDR at a new stage

Under the influence of the ideas of D. Locke and J. J. Rousseau in Germany at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. The bourgeois movement began philanthropism (philanthropist - a person engaged in charitable activities). Within their system, philanthropists allocated three main groups of exercises: games, exercises to develop manual dexterity, physical exercises themselves.

The games differed in their impact on students as follows: to develop intelligence, to develop attention, to develop memory, imagination, mental abilities, and games of an aesthetic nature.

The development of manual dexterity did not reflect training in “labor”, as it is understood now, but education through labor activity itself - as a carpenter, turner, gardener and bookbinder (these professions were honorable at that time).

Actually physical exercise formed the basis of the system. They were divided into jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing, balance, weight training, posture exercises, dancing, drills, swimming, singing exercises, mental exercises. In turn, these types of movements were classified into components that accustomed children to the circumstances that they might encounter in Everyday life. For example, they practiced jumping up, jumping from different heights, jumping with various objects and equipment (for example, with a pole), etc.

The significance of the activities of philanthropists lies primarily in the fact that thanks to their efforts, physical education was included in the school curriculum, they became pioneers German and Swedish directions in gymnastics.

German gymnastic (tournaur) movement has its roots in philanthropism. It took shape at the beginning of the 19th century. and is associated with the names of F. Jan and E. Eiselen. Jan was more of an organizer and ideological leader, and Eiselen was a practitioner and specialist in the field of gymnastics methodology. The creation of German gymnastics at the very beginning was aimed at increasing the combat skills of the German army in the fight against the French conquerors (Napoleon's army). From the middle of the 19th century. the content of military gymnastics is being processed in relation to the requirements of school physical education. It has become widespread in the army, schools, and various sports societies.

German gymnastics basically saved the exercises from systems, created philanthropists. However, some have been introduced additions: excluded swimming and wrestling, introduced general warm-up, overcoming obstacles, stretching exercises, included them in practice gymnastic apparatus, climbing and hanging exercises were separated into a separate group.

Theoreticians of the German gymnastic movement considered all types of gymnastics physical exercise.

However, many of them: athletics exercises, rowing, skating, cycling, weightlifting and others - developed independently, outside of gymnastics.

Methodology of conducting classes and classification of exercises in German gymnastics did not have a sufficiently complete scientific basis. The classification was based on the external form of movements, were absent dosage instructions physical activity, pedagogical and medical control.

Founder Swedish gymnastics is P. Ling. He studied ancient physical culture China, Scandinavian countries, German gymnastics of the New Age. Based on this information, P. Ling classified physical exercises based on knowledge of anatomy and biology. P. Ling shared gymnastics for four types: military, pedagogical, medical and aesthetic, but practically created only military.

Pedagogical gymnastics developed by Ya Ling ( son P. Linga). In the 40s XIX century he described the technique of performing and teaching methods of Swedish pedagogical gymnastics, lesson structure, introduced gymnastic equipment - a gymnastic wall (wall bars), a bench, a gymnastic beam (boom), etc.

Based on the idea that the human body consists of various parts, the creators of Swedish gymnastics considered it necessary to develop these individual parts of the body. So, all exercises were divided into the following groups: for legs, back, arms, abdominals, chest, for the development of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, etc. Proposed lesson structure was complex and consisted from 12-18 parts. Each part provided for an impact on one or another part of the body or functional system of the body.

Swedish gymnastics was a step forward in terms of explaining exercises in terms of knowledge from the fields of anatomy and biology. In Sweden at that time, teacher training was organized with higher education in gymnastics. In 1813, the Central Gymnastics Institute opened in Stockholm. Ya Ling developed the first indoor sports hall project, according to which the first began to build Sport halls. Physical education in a Swedish school there was also among girls.

Swedish gymnastics organically complemented German. In practice physical education these two systems gradually merged.

In the middle of the 19th century. began to be created Sokol gymnastics system . This is the first significant Slavic physical education system, called “Falcon” - a symbol of freedom, courage, independence. Its founder was a famous cultural figure of the Czech Republic M. Tyrsh. As a representative of the bourgeois intelligentsia, he sought to unite and unite the Czech people in the struggle for national independence, since the Czech Republic at that time was under the rule of Austria.

Sokol gymnastics made a significant contribution to the creation of modern sports and rhythmic gymnastics. She included already known from German and Swedish gymnastics exercises, but significantly supplemented them by a number of other movements.

An attempt was made in Sokol gymnastics classifications physical exercise on a new basis. They were divided into four main groups.

First group- exercises without shells: walking, running, floor exercises, drill exercises, round dances, dancing.

Second group - apparatus exercises: simple long jumps, “attack” high jumps, deep pole vaults, exercises on a goat, a long table, a long and wide horse with and without handles, crossbar, uneven bars, rings in place and in swing, on stilts, ladders, wall bars, ropes, poles, Swedish bench, balance beam, ball, skates, bicycle. Exercises with equipment: exercises with various weights (sticks, dumbbells, weights, peaks, flails, cues, hammers, clubs, shovels, picks, hoes, scythes, bows, ladders, logs), throwing exercises (javelin, discus, hammer, cube, cannonball, ball), exercises with objects (flags, flags, clubs, jump ropes).

Third group - group exercises: pyramids, mass gymnastic performances, outdoor games.

Fourth group - combat exercises: fencing, wrestling, boxing, resistance exercises.

A step forward was that in Sokol gymnastics attention was paid not by the number of repetitions, as was the case in German and Swedish gymnastics, but to the beauty of performing movements. Gymnastic exercises began to be combined in combinations, they began to be used musical accompaniment, beautiful costumes, different appearance. The lesson was divided into three parts: preparatory, main and final (so, How it's done currently). The methodology of conducting classes included a lot of interesting and new things, especially during mass gymnastic performances, in which up to 15-20 thousand people participated.

From the second half of the 19th century. Modern views on physical education and sports are beginning to take shape. Pedagogical views on physical education were largely formed under the influence of new knowledge in the field of biological sciences, since the leading theory of the second half of the 19th century. was the theory of natural scientific materialism. Its most significant provisions, which significantly influenced physical education, were:

1. the unity of the human body and its inextricable connection with the environment;

2. dependence of body shapes and the structure of its organs on their functional state;

3. physiological mechanism of motor skill formation.

Old methods German, Swedish, Sokol gymnastics and other systems have already did not meet the requirements of the time.

Development of physical education in the second half of the 19th century. was going on not on the path of confronting gymnastics with sports, or vice versa, but, on the contrary, has emerged search for integrative forms of movements, rational convergence of these two directions.

Among new foreign systems of physical education, first of all, we should highlight the method proposed by the Hungarian G. Demeny (1850-1917), and the “natural gymnastics” method developed by the Austrian teacher K. Gaulhofer(1885 - 1941) with employees.

G. Demeni, Hungarian by nationality, lived and worked in France. He studied German and Swedish gymnastics And revealed in them inconsistency movements laws of anatomy and physiology, noting the presence of largely unnatural and formal elements. Same views, as will be noted below, was also adhered to by the founder of the domestic system of physics education P.F. Lesgaft.

Demeni developed the following system of requirements when performing physical exercises:

1. should avoid static, unnatural provisions. The speed of movement of individual parts of the body should be inversely proportional to their mass. Movements should be natural and sweeping, and not “selective” and “angular” (this position is in many ways similar to the Chinese health-improving gymnastics taijiquan);

2. movements must be performed with a complete amplitude, antagonist muscles, i.e. those that are not involved in performing movements, must be relaxed.

Movements in sports Demeni divided into seven types: walking, running, jumping, climbing, lifting and carrying weights, throwing, defensive and offensive techniques. Each of these species had many varieties.

Gymnastics was intended and for girls, it emphasized its aesthetic side.

The flourishing of sports in modern times has become the reason for the formation of their own approach to gymnastic disciplines in the most developed countries of Europe and America. During this period, economic and capitalist trends began to change, the rapid development of industry, science, military affairs and technology ultimately gave rise to the need to organize competitions, hold mass spectacles and competitions. In the upper strata, income-generating sports were widely supported, and the fashion for betting strengthened. At the same time, army disciplines developed, requiring increasingly more thorough and inventive training. Individual physical exercises and various games became an integral part of the lives of not only athletes, but also ordinary citizens; international competitions required increasingly sophisticated approaches to training to win; over time, each state became interested in developing its own gymnastic systems.

The first ways of gymnastic education of modern times

England, the oldest capitalist state, was the first to come to the need to develop athletes in its own way. In the 17th century, there was a revolution in the yard, colonies were actively being captured, the acquisition and maintenance of which required physically strong and extremely mobile troops. Among the commanders, the bulk were people from the bourgeoisie, accustomed to a good education. Universities at that time placed great emphasis on physical education classes, as well as training young people.

Since the 18th century, sports clubs have been actively created in the country and competitions have been held, which required the creation of a set of uniform rules for everyone. The first such sports were rowing and Athletics, then in 1863 the English football league, rugby, golf, and boxing were gaining popularity. With the colonization of America, all trends in sports flowed there, and then, after its separation, their own methods of education began to develop there. To maintain the power of capitalism, they actively supported physical training, and the introduction of sports into educational institutions led to the development of increasingly modern training rules.

While England and the USA emphasized sports and games, European countries (Sweden, Germany, France) were more inclined towards gymnastics. The desire to prepare their soldiers better than others, as well as the desire to unite citizens through educational work, ultimately led to the creation of a national gymnastics system in each country. At that time, there were no special divisions in the concept; it also included jumping, wrestling, skiing, running and other related activities.

Development of the movement in Germany

The foundations for the development of the gymnastic discipline in all countries are similar, but a certain originality still distinguishes them.

The German system of gymnastics dates its origins to the end of the 18th century, where, under the influence of the enlightened ideas of Rousseau and Pestalozzi, a movement called “philanthropism” (the concept refers to charity) developed. New school institutions - philanthropists sought to develop personality in harmony of spirit and body. German gymnastics originated within their walls; the main achievement in this is attributed to teachers G. Fit and I. H. Guts-Muts, who lived in the late 18th - early 19th centuries.

G. Fit published the essay “The Experience of the Encyclopedia of Physical Education”, where he talked about the history of its origin and proposed his own method of gymnastics. The founder of this system described in detail the exercises performed on parallel bars and the crossbar, with and without the use of apparatus, and also touched upon the topic of horse riding. His book covers the topic of gymnastics from the point of view of biomechanics.

The second teacher published the works “Gymnastics for the Sons of the Fatherland” and “Gymnastics for Youth.” His books pay special attention to games and simple work. He considered it extremely important walking, running, climbing, throwing, swimming, balance. The author classified classes into active and passive, heavy and light. Guts-Muts spent a lot of time identifying standards for level classification physical development person. During a difficult period for the country, the teacher was engaged in organizational activities, trying to unite the people through physical education.

Fragmentation and defeat in the war with Napoleon required residents to increase the level of sports and military training. The year 1810 marked the beginning of the Tourneur movement; near Berlin, “Turnplatz” was created - a platform with crossbars, a horse, parallel bars and other modern equipment. Strong ideological propaganda for the development of physical training and the unification of Germany led to uprisings, after which a ban on tournament organizations arose; popularity was restored only in the 60s, at which time the All-German Gymnastics Union was created. In addition to regular exercises, the association was actively involved in tourism, hiking, and instilling discipline.

Now the German gymnastic system of that time is subject to serious criticism, because it did not have a sufficient basis; its basis was the external form, not supported by sufficient knowledge of anatomy and physiology. There have also been little advances in dosage and medical supervision.

Sweden

Per Ling is considered the founder of the Swedish school; in 1813 he founded the Stockholm Gymnastics Institute, which is still in operation today. His son Hjalmar continued his father's activities.

The Swedish gymnastics system aims to develop agility, courage and courage in children and adults. Her main task was army training. The main components of the system were divided into 4 main types:

Ling tried to go further in his research than the figures German system However, the level of the science of physiology was still not sufficiently developed. While Germany preferred uneven bars and pommel horse training, Sweden focused on beam, bench and wall. At the same time, the lessons were conducted, starting with exercises on parts of the body, and then on breathing, walking, running, jumping. At the same time, all classes were somewhat static and had an excessive group approach, but this did not prevent this system from spreading in Europe and the Americas.

France

The French gymnastics system took shape after the end of the Napoleonic wars. After the defeat, the local bourgeoisie received the desire to revive the lost power of their army at any cost. Francisco Amoros, a Spaniard by birth, studied the works of Pestalozzi and opened his own gymnastics school in the capital of France, which was a success, which attracted the attention of the War Ministry. He received the task of transferring his knowledge to strengthening military forces; in 1820 he was entrusted with the training of officers, and then control over the education of all branches of the military. Amoros was puzzled by the victory of Russian forces in the war and closely studied the methods of training Suvorov's army. He tried to synthesize the cultures of successful powers, while emphasizing morality and harmony.

However, the teachings of Amoros were not the only way to develop the local gymnastics system. Fencing gained popularity in high circles, competitions were organized, and teachers in this sport were hired. By the 60s, cycling, golf, and tennis became another branch of development. There are still fans of hunting and shooting with bows and other weapons.

The Swedish, German and French gymnastics systems, although different, have the same basis. They all originated at about the same time and became the basis modern sports. After a long period of calm, scientists and teachers tried to collect, classify and systematize all the knowledge accumulated over centuries. At that time, almost all gymnastic equipment and exercises used in modern times were created. Although science had not yet reached the necessary heights, it was then that the foundations of present-day physical education were laid. The disadvantage of all these systems was that they were aimed mainly at military training and occupations for the upper classes, which still left the rest of the population “overboard.” sports life that time.

Formation and development of organizational forms of modern sports

Development sports activities as the highest form of physical culture did not proceed quickly and smoothly. Histographers note a number of obstacles to the development of sports activities. These include: religious prejudices; ideological and political obstacles; impossibility of women participating in sports; the dual attitude of the dominant trends in pedagogy towards sports; poor quality training methods. Only by the end of the 60s of the 19th century there was almost no country (except for the continent of Africa) where some kind of sport had not taken root. All this confirmed the interest in the sports activities of society and led to the development of organizational forms of modern sports life. began to form sport sections within public interest groups and differentiation of sports. Later, many of them grew into independent sports societies and associations. This process took place especially rapidly in the USA, England, Germany, Italy, Australia, Canada, Scandinavia and France. Since various sports associations functioned in accordance with their own rules, according to the bourgeois way of life, the larger and more authoritative ones began to exploit the smaller ones. This led to the need to create special sports unions with national competence. The unions began to harmonize technology and uniform competition rules in various types sports An example of the first unions is the Athletic Union of Gymnastics Amateurs and athletics(USA, 1888), National Collegiate Athletic Union (England, 1906), as well as unions in France and Austria-Hungary. The emergence of an organizational structure made it possible to form a system of international competitions. Since the 1890s, official international forums on individual sports began to be held. The first world championship was held in St. Petersburg (1896) figure skating, the first European Championship took place in Hamburg (1891) also in figure skating. Championships of the continents of South America, Australia, and Asia began to be held in 1916. International competitions were the basis for the formation of international specialized sports associations, i.e. federations The first International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) was founded in 1881.

The founders of the German gymnastics system were Johann Guts-Muths. Friedrich Jan. Adolf Spiess. The basis of this system was exercises on gymnastic apparatus (crossbar, parallel bars, pommel horse, ladders, poles, etc.) - military game exercises, tourism, excursions. The main goal development was considered motor abilities, complex movements, endurance, will and discipline.

Friedrich Jahn (1778 - 1852) in 1811 in a meadow Hazen- Heide, near Berlin, set up a gymnastics area and began to work. Young people, under his guidance, engaged in physical exercises on gymnastic apparatus and at the same time listened to conversations of a patriotic nature. Jan called his system “Turnkunst” - the art of resourcefulness (abbreviated as Turnen). and called the students tourners. He compiled a list of exercises on gymnastic apparatus, the horizontal bar, bars and pommel horse, which boiled down to repeated repetitions of individual elements - lifts, revolutions, swings, etc.

F. Jan trained 2 thousand gymnasts. Following his example, identical schools began to appear in other cities. The Prussian government, trying to stop the unfavorable trend for itself, in 1819 banned physical education in schools and gymnastics classes adults outdoors. Jan was placed in a fortress (released in 1825). The ban on gymnastics lasted from 1820 to 1842. In 1842, a royal decree lifted the ban on Jan's set of exercises.

The Jan system in relation to school was developed by the Swiss Adolf Spiess (1810 - 1858) and supplemented with exercises with hand apparatus, changes, hangs and stops. He was helped by Ernst Eiselen, who developed a teaching methodology and produced visual tables. The Jan-Eiselen-Spiess system consisted of:

1) ordinal exercises.

2) floor exercises:

3) exercises with apparatus - moving and stationary

4) mass exercises:

The theoreticians of the German Turnen considered all areas of physical culture to be gymnastics. They were especially keen on jumping athletics. However, other types of physical exercises - athletics, rowing, skating, cycling - developed under completely different conditions and according to different laws than the motor material of gymnastics. Therefore, in the second half of the 19th century, fans of these types gradually left the ranks of the gymnastic movement.

Swedish gymnastics system

The Swedish gymnastic system was created on the initiative of the government, which entrusted its development to Per Henrnk Ling (1776 - 1830). At his suggestion, a gymnastics institute was opened in Stockholm in 1813, which still exists today. The main goal of Swedish gymnastics is to strengthen the health of young people, harmoniously develop their body, prepare for military service. All exercises, depending on their goals and purpose, were divided into pedagogical, military, medical, aesthetic gymnastics. Per Ling established the dependence of the form of movement on the anatomical structure of the body and classified gymnastic exercises on this basis. They included hand exercises. legs abdominal, dorsal and lateral muscles of the body, etc.

P. Ling's concept was based on the fact that physical education should be based exclusively on knowledge confirmed by anatomy and biology. His set of rules is that each activity is a closed unity. It began with a warm-up. The main part was devoted to elements of increased intensity with holding positions that contributed to the development of strength. The session ended with the usual relaxation exercises.

Having a narrow understanding of the physiological usefulness of physical exercises, he excluded exercises that he considered harmful to the body and fenced off complex forms of motor material in sports.

His father's work was continued by his son Lamar Ling (1799 -1881). He described in detail the technique of performing exercises, proposed teaching methods, and developed the structure of a gymnastics lesson. The lesson consisted of 14 - 16 series of continuous exercises for individual parts of the body in combination with exercises in balance, walking, running and breathing exercises at the end of the lesson. The load increased and decreased several times during the lesson. To effectively influence individual muscle groups, the authors of the system came up with new equipment - wall bars, boom, bench, plinth. Their purpose was fundamentally different from the apparatus used in German gymnastics. There, the practitioners tried to perform all the movements that could be performed, and in Swedish gymnastics, apparatus played a supporting role. They either made it easier or more difficult to perform movements, depending on the tasks, making it possible to influence individual muscle groups in isolation. Swedish gymnastics was characterized by symmetry, straightness, small amplitude and angularity of movements, excessive static effort, which is why critics called it “ gymnastics poses.” But, despite these shortcomings, it differed favorably from German gymnastics in its hygienic orientation and methodological soundness.

Thus, the Swedish system contributed to the creation of the foundations of modern physical culture through the local development of individual muscle groups and health protection. German system - by physical training and education on a collective basis.

German gymnastics system

The German gymnastics system developed under the influence of the advanced part of the German bourgeoisie. The founders of the German gymnastics system were Johann Guts-Muts, Friedrich Jahn, and Adolf Spiess. The basis of this system was exercises on gymnastic apparatus (crossbar, parallel bars, pommel horse, ladders, poles, etc.), military game exercises, tourism, and excursions. The main goal was considered to be the development of motor abilities, complex movements, endurance, will and discipline. The greatest contribution to the development of gymnastics was made by scientists Fit, Guts-Muts, Jan, Spiess.

Friedrich Jahn (1778 - 1852) in 1811 built a gymnastics site on the Hasen-Heide meadow near Berlin and began work. Young people, under his guidance, engaged in physical exercises on gymnastic apparatus and at the same time listened to conversations of a patriotic nature. Jan called his system “turnkunst” - the art of resourcefulness (abbreviated as turnen), and called his students turneurs. He compiled a list of exercises on gymnastic apparatus, the horizontal bar, bars and pommel horse, which boiled down to repeated repetitions of individual elements - lifts, revolutions, swings, etc.

F. Jan trained 2 thousand gymnasts. Following his example, identical schools began to appear in other cities. The Prussian government, trying to stop the unfavorable trend for itself, in 1819 banned physical education in schools and outdoor gymnastics for adults. Jan was placed in a fortress (released in 1825). The ban on gymnastics lasted from 1820 to 1842. In 1842, a royal decree lifted the ban on Jan's set of exercises.

1) serial exercises;

2) floor exercises;

3) exercises with apparatus - moving and stationary;

4) mass exercises;

Gerhard Ulrich Anton Fith (1763 1836) summarized and systematized everything that had been done in the field of physical exercise before him, and outlined it in his “Experience in an Encyclopedia of Physical Exercise.” This work consists of three parts: “Data for the history of physical exercises” (1794), “System of physical exercises” (1795), “Appendices to the first and second parts” (1819). He defined the concept of "Physical exercise": it is all movement and application physical strength of the human body, with the goal of improving the latter. By using gymnastic exercises According to Fit, a teacher can:

b) develop beautiful shapes bodies;

c) increase strength and speed of movements;

d) develop accuracy and confidence in movements, give vigor and determination to the spirit;

e) develop the need for mental work and useful spending of free time;

f) distract from the early appearance of sexual needs.

Fit proposed a number of rules and guidelines for conducting classes:

a) the need for specially equipped training places;

b) high professional preparedness of the teacher;

c) taking into account the individual characteristics of students when selecting exercises (health, constitutional characteristics, doctor’s instructions).

On a highly technical basis, Fit developed exercises in vaulting on a wooden horse and uneven bars.

He believed that school examinations could be made public in the form of competitions in science, art and gymnastic exercises.

Johann Christopher Guts-Muths (1759 1839) at the beginning of his pedagogical activity tried to adapt Rousseau's ideas about physical education, his call for a return to the bosom of nature, the idealization of the primitive savage for the education of a strong, courageous younger generation, the model of which should be the old (medieval) German.

Guts-Muts wrote a number of works on gymnastics: “Gymnastics for Youth” (1804); "Games for the development and relaxation of body and spirit" (1796); “Gymnastic manual for the sons of the fatherland” (1817), etc. They were translated into French, English, Danish and contributed to the spread of the author’s ideas in Europe.

After the capture of Germany by the Napoleonic army, Guts-Muts's views on physical education changed; this change was facilitated by the national liberation movement and the development of capitalism. The teacher believed that students of higher educational institutions and future teachers should be introduced to gymnastic exercises. Gymnastics, in his opinion, had an even closer relationship with all other classes, because their body should serve the state. Gymnastics was then considered the basis of the national system of physical education of the German people.

The Guts-Muts gymnastics system included the following exercises: long, high, deep and pole jumps, walking and running with obstacles, throwing various objects, climbing, climbing, balance exercises (beam, horizontal rope, etc.), carrying weights, marching with special military exercises, swimming etc. Training was carried out using a visual method, competitions were used, and a gymnastic style of performing exercises was established.

In order to organize the struggle for the liberation of the fatherland from Napoleon, the Tugenbund (Union of Virtue) arose in 1808 in Koenigsberg. Government and public figures took part in its work. Gymnastics was considered as one of the important means of preparing young people for the liberation of their homeland. In 1809, this union was closed by order of Napoleon. However, under the influence of the ideas of the Tugenbund, nationalist patriots in Braunsberg (Prussia) founded the first open parade ground as a public institution for gymnastics.

Guts-Muts's ideas formed the basis of the German Tournain and the Swedish gymnastics system.

Through gymnastics, Jan tried to restore the lost balance of human education, to place physical activity next to one-sided spiritual activity, and to contrast masculinity with excessive refinement.

Yang included 24 groups of exercises in his system. Many of them are borrowed from Fit, Guts-Muts. Special attention focused on exercises on the pommel horse, goat, parallel bars, horizontal bar (bar), exercises with a bench and hoop, acrobatics, and dancing. Military applied exercises were also used: archery and firearms, carrying heavy loads, horse riding, etc.

Exercises without gymnastic equipment and with projectiles they became more interesting and attractive to young people due to the fact that their execution was given a competitive nature. Jan encouraged the achievements of his students, great importance he gave shape to the movements and technique of performing the exercises. He demanded from the pupils straight position head, pointed toes, straight lines in movements and military bearing. The gymnastic style of performing exercises was born.

The gymnastics course was designed for two periods. In the first period they used relatively simple exercises: walking, running, jumping, climbing, exercises on apparatus, games. The principle of gradualness, consistency, and the correct combination of load and rest was observed. Much attention was paid to the development of will, the study of the individual abilities of those involved. In the second period, the gymnasts performed more complex exercises.

The lesson consisted of two parts. In the first part, the students worked independently, each choosing for himself what to do.

At this time, the prefects and teachers provided order, insurance, provided assistance and observed the inclinations, aspirations and abilities of the students. In the second part of the lesson, mandatory exercises were performed for everyone. The students were divided into sections according to age. They were shown basic and introductory exercises, which they had to repeat after the teacher. The studied exercise was repeated many times (up to 100 or more times). The main attention was paid to the development muscle strength, endurance and will.

In 1811, Jan opened an outdoor gymnastics facility in Hessenheiden, near Berlin. This contributed to the further development of gymnastics..."

The Prussian government used gymnastics as one of the levers to mobilize the population to solve state problems. For this purpose, gymnastics societies and unions are organized, and gymnastics is introduced into the school system.

The founder of school gymnastics in Germany is considered to be Adolf Spiess (1816 - 1858), a teacher of gymnastics, history and singing. Based on the work of his predecessors, he developed a system of school gymnastics and justified the need to teach it as a compulsory subject. In his four-volume work, “The Teaching of the Art of Tournai,” he described drill and floor exercises, and developed exercises in hanging and resting positions. He actually developed Pestalozzi's idea of developing children's ability to work with the help of gymnastic exercises to the point of teaching disciplined, drilling floor exercises. The main ones were walking, running, jumping, bouncing, turning, exercises for the arms, torso and legs. The exercises were performed to musical accompaniment, combined with singing and demonstrated at gymnastics festivals.

Spiess increased the size of the crossbar and bars so that 4-6 people could train on them at the same time, and adapted them for classes with schoolchildren. The exercises were systematized in order of increasing difficulty. When selecting exercises and dosing the load, a differentiated approach was taken to boys and girls, strong and weak students. The gymnastics lesson began with drill exercises on the spot and in motion, followed by floor exercises and apparatus exercises. The lesson ended with outdoor games and mass exercises.

The main disadvantage of the Spiess method was that the exercises were performed by all students at the same time. This made an individual approach difficult; individuality was subject to the formal requirements of discipline and order. Drill and floor exercises, which really had enormous potential for a comprehensive impact on a person, served only as a means of discipline and drill.

Spiess completed the creation of the German gymnastics system.

German gymnastic (tournaur) movement

The German gymnastics movement has its roots in philanthropism. It took shape at the beginning of the 19th century. and is associated with the names of F. Jan and E. Eiselen. Jan was more of an organizer and ideological leader, and Eiselen was a practitioner and specialist in the field of gymnastics methodology. The creation of German gymnastics at the very beginning was aimed at increasing the combat skills of the German army in the fight against the French conquerors (Napoleon's army). From the middle of the 19th century. the content of military gymnastics is being processed in relation to the requirements of school physical education. It has become widespread in the army, schools, and various sports societies. In 1811, near Berlin (now it is the park named after F. Jan) a gymnastics ground (Turnplatz) was built, equipped with special equipment - horizontal bars (crossbars), parallel bars, horse, poles, climbing ladders, etc. The number of people practicing on the site reached 500 people

German gymnastics basically retained exercises from the system created by philanthropists. However, some additions were made: swimming and wrestling were excluded, a general warm-up, overcoming obstacles, stretching exercises were introduced, gymnastic apparatus were included in the training practice, and climbing and hanging exercises were separated into a separate group.

The theoreticians of the German gymnastic movement considered all types of physical exercises to be gymnastics. However, many of them: athletics exercises, rowing, skating, cycling, weightlifting and others - developed independently, outside of gymnastics.

The methodology for conducting classes and the classification of exercises in German gymnastics did not have a sufficiently complete scientific justification. The classification was based on the external form of movements; there were no instructions on the dosage of physical activity, pedagogical and medical control.

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Swamps formed as a result of flooding or wetting of lowlands can be overcome by stepping or jumping from hummock to hummock or using the soil near the butts of trees (shrubs) to support the feet. Alpenstocks are also used for support...

Transport of gases during endurance training

Blood moves continuously through the vessels, although the heart periodically pushes blood into the aorta. This is possible because the volume of blood pushed into the aorta during heart systole stretches the walls of the aorta...

Physical education of students

In 1923, the sports department of the International Confederation of Students organized the International University Sports Congress in Paris. Since 1924, world championships among students in individual sports began to be held...