Weapons of gladiators of ancient Rome. Types of Roman gladiators Gladiator armor

G Ladiatorial games arose from Etruscan funerary rites, which once included human sacrifice.

Over time, the ritual changed: those doomed to death were no longer killed immediately, but were forced to fight with swords in their hands near the grave, and thus the weak died, and the strong remained alive, causing the delight of those present. The Romans first saw this cruel spectacle in 264 BC e. at the Bull Market, where three pairs of gladiators fought at the funeral of Brutus Pere, organized by his sons. The spectacle seemed so unusual and remarkable to the Romans that the event was included in the annals of Rome.

The connection between gladiatorial games and funerals was never forgotten; they were called “funeral games.” Their official name is mumus (“duty”), the duty of the living towards the deceased.

In 105 BC. e. gladiatorial games are introduced into the number of public spectacles. From now on the state

entrusts his magistrates with the care of their organization. Gladiator games are becoming a favorite spectacle in Rome and throughout Italy, and this is quickly taken into account by those who want to advance. Caesar in 65 BC e. gave games in which 320 pairs of gladiators took part. His enemies were afraid: not only these armed fellows were scary; The scary thing was that luxurious games became a sure way to gain the favor of the people and secure votes in elections. In 63 BC. e. At the suggestion of Cicero, a law was passed prohibiting a candidate for magistrate from “giving gladiators” for two years before the election. No one, however, could prohibit a private person from “giving” them under the pretext of a funeral for his relative, especially if the latter bequeathed to his heir to organize games.

If the wounded gladiator remained alive, his fate was decided by the public. Depending on the opinion of the crowd, the winner had to finish off the one lying down or leave him alive if he deserved his life through valiant resistance. In the games held in Rome itself, the opinion of the emperor was decisive. The crowd "voted" using gestures that changed over time. Although it is traditionally accepted that a “raised finger” meant “Life”, and a lowered one meant “Death” (in this form, gestures are now used for approval and condemnation), on most ancient games Regardless of the direction, the protruding finger meant “death”, symbolizing the finishing sword movement, and “Life” simply meant a clenched fist. Shouts with wishes also played an important role.

Gladiatorial combat was banned in 400 AD when Christianity took over the Roman Empire.

Depending on the weapons and the specifics of their participation in fights, the following types of gladiators were distinguished:

Andabat (from the Greek word “άναβαται” - “raised, located on an eminence”) They were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. The Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights did in medieval jousting tournaments, but without being able to see each other.

Bestiary: Armed with a javelin or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but criminals (noxii), sentenced to fight with predatory animals, with a high probability of death for the condemned. Bestiaries later became highly trained gladiators, specializing in combat with a variety of exotic predators using javelins. The battles were organized in such a way that the animals had little chance of defeating the bestiary.

Bustuary: These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased in ritual games during funeral rites.

Dimacher (from the Greek “διμάχαιρος” - “carrying two daggers”). Two swords were used, one in each hand. They fought without a helmet and shield with two daggers. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, their arms and legs were bandaged with tight bandages, and sometimes they wore greaves.

Equitus ("horseman"): In early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators were dressed in scale armor, carried a medium-sized round cavalry shield (parma equestris), a brimmed helmet, without a crest, but with two decorative tassels. During the Empire, they wore forearm armor (manika) on right hand, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other gladiators who fought bare-chested), and a belt. The Equites began the battle on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hasta), they dismounted and continued the fight with a short sword (gladius). Typically, equites only fought other equites.

Gall: They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.

Essedarius ("chariot fighter", from the Latin name for the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). They may have been first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain. Essedarii are mentioned in many descriptions starting from the 1st century AD. e. Since there are no depictions of the Essedarii, nothing is known about their weapons or fighting style.

Hoplomachus (from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter"): They wore a quilted, trouser-like leg garment, possibly made of canvas, a loincloth, a belt, greaves, forearm armor (manika) on the right arm, and a helmet with a brim and a stylized griffin on the crest, which could be decorated with a tassel of feathers at the top and single feathers on each side. They were armed with a gladius and a very small round shield made from a single sheet of thick bronze (examples from Popmpaea have survived). They were fielded in battles against the Mirmillons or Thracians. It is possible that the Hoplomachus descended from the earlier Samnites after it became "politically incorrect" to use the name of a people who had become friendly to the Romans.

Laquearius ("lasso fighter"): Laquearii may have been a type of retiarius that tried to catch their opponents with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.

Mirmillon: They wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest (from the Latin "mormylos" - "sea fish"), as well as forearm armor (manica), a loincloth and belt, a greave on the right leg, thick windings covering the top of the foot, and very short armor with a notch for padding on the top of the foot. The myrmillons were armed with a gladius (40-50 cm in length) and a large rectangular shield, like legionnaires. They were fielded in battles against the Thracians, Retiarii, and sometimes also against the Hoplomachus.

Pegniarius: They used a whip, a club and a shield, which was attached to the left hand with straps.

Provocateur (“applicant”): Their uniform could be different, depending on the nature of the games. They were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a manika on the right hand, and a helmet with a visor, without brim or crest, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The provocateurs were armed with a gladius and a large rectangular shield. They were exhibited in battles with the Samnites or other provocateurs.

Retiarius ("net fighter"): Appeared at the dawn of the Empire. They were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. In addition to the loincloth supported wide belt(balteus) and large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius did not have any clothing, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower part of the face. There were retiarii who played female roles in the arena (“retiarius tunicatus”), who differed from ordinary retiarii in that they were dressed in a tunic. The Retiarius usually fought the Secutors, but sometimes also the Myrmillons. .

Rudiarius: Gladiators who have earned their release (rewarded with a wooden sword called a rudis) but choose to remain gladiators. Not all rudiarii continued to fight in the arena; there was a special hierarchy among them: they could be trainers, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. Rudiarii fighters were very popular among the public, since they had vast experience and could be expected from them real show.

Sagittarius: Horse archers armed with a flexible bow that can fire an arrow over a long distance.

Samnite: Samnites, ancient type heavily armed fighters, which disappeared in the early imperial period, its name indicated the origin of gladiatorial combat. The historical Samnites were a powerful alliance of Italic tribes living in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom the Romans waged war from 326 to 291 BC. e. The Samnites' equipment included a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.

Secutor: This type of fighter was specifically designed for fights with retiarii. The secutors were a type of myrmillon and were equipped with similar armor and weapons, including a large rectangular shield and gladius. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face except for two eye holes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their opponent. The helmet was almost round and smooth so that the retiarius' net could not catch on it.

Scissor (scissor, “one who cuts”, “cutting”) - a gladiator who was armed with a short sword (gladius) and instead of a shield had a cutting weapon that resembled scissors (essentially two small swords that had one handle) or, in another case, layout, he put an iron hollow rod with a sharp horizontal tip on his left hand. With this cutting weapon, the scissor delivered blows that resulted in minor wounds to the opponent, but the wounds bled a lot (several arteries were cut, which naturally caused fountains of blood). Otherwise, the scissor was similar to a pruner, except for the additional protection of the right arm (from shoulder to elbow), which consisted of many iron plates fastened together with strong leather laces. The helmet and protective equipment of the secutors and scissors were the same

Tertiary (also called "Suppositicius" - "substitutes"): Some competitions involved three gladiators. First, the first two fought with each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called the tertiary. Tertiaries also came in as replacements if the gladiator announced for the fight for one reason or another could not enter the arena.

Thracian: The Thracians were equipped with the same armor as the hoplomachus. They had grand slam, covering the entire head and decorated with a stylized griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest (the griffin was a symbol of the goddess of vengeance Nemesis), a small round or flattened shield (parmula), and two large greaves. Their weapon was a Thracian curved sword (sicca, about 34 cm long). They usually fought the Myrmillons or Hoplomachus.

Velite: Foot gladiators armed with a javelin with a cord attached to it for throwing. Named after units of the early Republican army.

Venator: They specialized in display hunting animals, without fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. The Venators also performed tricks with animals: they put their hand in the mouth of a lion; rode a camel, holding lions on a leash nearby; forced an elephant to walk on a tightrope (Seneca Ep. 85.41). Strictly speaking, the Venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of gladiator battles.

Pregenary: We performed at the beginning of the competition to “warm up” the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, trumpets and water organs (hydraulis).

For centuries, stories about gladiatorial battles have aroused people's admiration. And it is not surprising, because these fearless wars fought for the right to live. For the most colorful presentation, the mighty warriors were divided into types and each of them was used in various battles and was armed in his own way.

Bestiaries They never fought with gladiators of other classes, they fought with exotic animals. Various dangerous animals were brought especially for fighting. Bestiaries were divided into two types. "Damnatio ad bestias" - handed over to the beasts. These included lower-class citizens scheduled for execution. And this fight was more like a simple baiting by animals. The second type was called "venatio", which translates as hunter. The hunters were armed with a club, a spear or darts, and entered the arena with an almost naked body without any armor. Hunters also trained aggressive animals and often showed real performances to the audience, putting their hands and heads into the predator’s mouth.

They were distinguished by cold-bloodedness and courage in any hopeless situation. They entered the arena armed only with light spears against opponents with heavy weapons. With the help of an unexpected attack and masterly defense, the velites showed the most colorful and striking victories, gaining fame as cold-blooded fighters capable of the most effective actions during brutal battles in the arena.

Powerful and brave, they had the reputation of being the elite of the gladiator world. These formidable wars cut a person in half with one blow. They were distinguished by great pressure and endurance; often a seriously wounded hoplomakh, the winner, did not leave the battlefield for a long time, listening to the enthusiastic cries of the spectators. Powerful hoplomachus could fearlessly fight alone against several opponents. Hoplomachus came out armed with swords - gladiuses or heavy two-pronged axes, and used massive shields for protection. A large helmet decorated with horns or feathers was worn on the head.

belonged to the equestrian type of gladiators, they began the fight on horses and with long spears 2 - 2.5 meters, but they always ended the battle on foot with the help of swords. In the arena they wore a wide-brimmed helmet, as well as a medium-sized round shield made of leather. This species was considered lightly armed, since the weight of the uniform was no more than 12 kg. Equites always fought only with Equites and were not fielded against gladiators of other types.

fought in the arena without armor wearing a spectacular mask on their face. Possessing great agility and speed, they inflicted many cutting and stabbing wounds, exhausting their opponents with their inaccessibility. Armed with two thin and light swords, the Dimachers easily fought opponents with heavy weapons. There were cases when some Dimachers released by the emperor subsequently became excellent actors.

The main distinguishing ability Legniarii there was the ability, honed to perfection, to concentrate all his strength in one key blow. These skilled fighters rarely participated in fights to the death, but performed on the lists to show off an amazing spectacle. The main weapon was a staff or a whip, but sometimes they were armed with a long whip for a mortal duel with terrible animals. With one strong and clear blow of this whip, the legniarius easily broke the spine of a huge beast or his opponent.

armed themselves with shields and gladius swords and always acted in pairs, especially against strong opponents. They wore distinctive helmets on their heads, decorated with delightful crests with bright stripes. The ridges helped the fighters not to lose sight of each other in order to cover their comrade in time. Often, in the event of the death of his partner, the other fighter committed suicide without leaving the arena. Such fidelity was considered a confirmation of strong male friendship.

Retiarii are the oldest type of gladiator. Thanks to their great combat effectiveness, these trained warriors successfully resisted the heavily armed secutors and Thracians. At first, the retiarii went into battle equipped with a dagger, trident and net, later they were allowed to wear an impressive helmet and neck guards. But it was the net and the trident that remained the constant feature of these brave warriors. A net thrown by an experienced hand for some time entangled the opponent in heavy weapons, who, trying to disentangle himself, became an easy target for a huge trident.

armed with a huge shield and sword, dressed in heavy armor and a round-shaped helmet covering the face with two small slits for the eyes. Typically, gladiators of this type were fielded against retiarii. At the beginning of the battle, the retiarius retreated to a safe distance, and the secutor pursued him, trying not to get caught in the net or hit by the trident. Wearing heavy armor and weapons, these brave warriors quickly grew tired.

Thracians Thanks to their courage and boundless courage, they became a legend of gladiatorial battles. They went out to fight wearing a heavy helmet with sharpened horns, a sharp Thracian sword and a strong bronze shield. Such uniforms turned the fighter into a dangerous weapon against mounted and foot enemies. If they lost their sword, the Thracians immediately took off their helmet and used it as a weapon during close combat. Many eminent Thracians received the privilege of wearing a colorful staff during the appearance of all the gladiators before the start of the battles.

Sagittarius were mounted gladiators who were skilled with the bow. Swift sagittarians usually came out at the end of mass battles, killed the surviving fighters, and at the same time managed to fight against each other to the death. There were situations when these reckless brave men shot at the emperor’s box, in anticipation of killing the ruler who had taken their freedom. The attempts always ended in failure, but the memories of these exceptional feats gave the gladiators hope and one day culminated in the famous uprising of Spartacus.

were the most dangerous single gladiators of Rome, with their special sharpened shields and gladiuses, they inflicted cutting wounds on their opponents. Perfect mastery of any bladed weapon, as well as good physical training, allowed warriors to strike their opponents in any position. The Sixsors also fought with mounted gladiators, they hit the horse and killed the riders with gladius, who were knocked down by their own horse.

They went out to fight only against provocateurs. They could themselves challenge an opponent to a fight in order to strengthen their position by defeating a more popular opponent, or to resolve conflicts between two gladiator schools that competed with each other. The provocateurs armed themselves in the clothes of Roman legionaries and carried a shield rectangular shape, cuirass and helmet.

Samnites like the retiarii, they were an early type of gladiator. These were prisoners of war from the Samnium region. Roman soldiers, having defeated the Samnites, forced them to participate in amusing battles, which later turned into gladiatorial battles. The Samnites wore military uniforms and fought with the assistance of a sword and a rectangular shield. Their enemies were captured soldiers from the territories defeated by Rome. Later, when Samnium became a province of the Roman Empire, the Samnites were no longer classified as a separate species and were joined with the Hoplomachus and Murmillons, who fought with similar weapons.

they almost didn’t put on armor and went out to fight with their torso exposed and without using a helmet, so that it could be seen that a woman was fighting. They were armed with light swords and small shields. Fights involving female gladiators were rare, and were accepted by the public as a novelty. Women competed with each other and, in rare cases, with dwarfs, which shocked the crowd. Women's Gladiator fights always accompanied by scandals and were soon banned.

Navmachiari were considered the gladiatorial elite and took part in naval battles. Due to the fact that not all arenas could be filled with water, such performances were very rare. The naumachiari came out armed with heavy spears, short swords and grappling hooks. In water battles, various historical battles were usually reconstructed, but the outcome of the battle did not always correspond to reality.

Rudiaria there were the most experienced warriors who earned freedom for their merits, but decided to remain in the gladiator craft. They received a wooden sword as a symbol of freedom. Rudiarii could become trainers, judges, or remain fighters. The public adored them, so every appearance of the rudiary promised a real show.

Pregenaries came out before the start of the competition to warm up the crowd. They fought with wooden swords without any armor.

Tertiaries– were put up to replace a previously announced gladiator, in cases where he could not come out. Also, sometimes there were three gladiators in the arena. The first two fought against each other, and the third fought the winner.

All these fearless wars certainly deserved respect and the legends about them will not die for a long time.

Samnite: Samnites, an ancient type of heavily armed fighters The historical Samnites were an influential alliance of Italic tribes living in the Campania region south of Rome. The equipment of the Samnites was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a helmet decorated with feathers, a short sword, a sword and a greave on the left leg.

Skissor (scissor, “one who cuts”, “cutting”) - a gladiator who was armed with a short sword (gladius) and instead of a shield had a cutting weapon, two small swords that had one handle) or, in another scenario, worn on his left hand an iron hollow rod with a hook and chain, or a sharp horizontal point. With this cutting weapon, the scissor delivered blows that resulted in minor wounds to the opponent, but the wounds bled a lot (several arteries were cut, which naturally caused fountains of blood). Otherwise, the scissor was similar to a pruner, except for the additional protection of the right arm (from shoulder to elbow), which consisted of many iron plates fastened together with strong leather laces. As many resources claim, absolutely nothing is known about the Scissors, however, this is not the case and today we can confidently imagine what this gladiator looked like, and he looked truly terrifying.

(Scissor carvers):They were armed with two large swords.

Peltasts - lightly armed gladiators (a type of velite) , were often used as skirmishers who threw darts. The peltasts' armament consisted of several darts, often with "throwing belts" that made it possible to increase the leverage of force when throwing. As the main means of defense, the peltasts used a crescent-shaped wicker shield called a pelta.

Thracian peltast Spartan peltast

Provocateur (“applicant”). Their uniforms could be different, depending on the nature of the games. They were depicted wearing a loincloth, big beltwith iron buckle , a long greave on the left leg, a manika on the right hand, andsmooth-topped helmet with visor,rounded cutouts for the eyes, covered with mesh and with feathers on each side.They were in fierce battles , protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The weapons of the provocateurs were a gladius and a large rectangular , sometimes rounded shield.

Andabat (from the Greek word “andibatus” - “located on an eminence” They were so named because they fought on horseback. They were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry, and helmets with visors, or a helmet with a metal mask, sometimes an aventail, covering the face. Cataphracts wore a plate or scaly armor. Parthian cataphracts of the 2nd century AD used combined scale-plate armor, in which large rectangular vertical plates covered the chest instead of small scales. It is possible that chain mail could have been used in such armor instead of scales.

Bestiary and Venator (Beast Fighters) Armed with a spear or knife, these gladiators went out to fight dangerous animals. Later, Bestiaries received special training for battle against specific types of beasts.They specialized in demonstration hunts for animals, without fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. The Venators also performed tricks with animals: they put their hand in the mouth of a lion; rode a camel, holding lions on a leash nearby; forced an elephant to walk on a tightrope).

Laquerii (Lakvearium) ("lasso fighter"): Laquearii may have been a type of retiarii that tried to catch their opponents with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net. Weapons: lasso (lasso) and short knife. Laquearia clothing consists of light armor on the chest, light boots and light hand guards, a wide leather belt with metal plates that protects the stomach. Closing shoulder pad left shoulder, arm to the elbow and rising high enough above the shoulder so that it was possible to cover the head from the blow with the movement of the shoulder.

And of course, we all know and love: secutor, dimacherus, murmilion, Thracian, hoplomachus, velite, equitus, sagittarium and essedarius.

Dimacher is, as you know, two swords, he is good in attack, weak in defense, with two swords it is very difficult to block blows, without a shield, he is very weak against strong blows, even if he blocks the blows, he quickly falls. Dimacher should definitely be placed on the attack, not 1% should remain, no distance, only a maximum attack! He must very quickly crush the enemy with his attack, not allow the enemy to breathe, and in a successful scenario he will win, well, at least he will have there's more chance of that.

Hoplomachus - He has a large shield, has a unique position, he knows how to sit down and in this position it is very difficult to get him, while he is sitting and it is impossible to get him. But Hoplomakh will only sit when he is on defense; the higher the percentage of defense, the more often he sits. Next, he should rarely open (that is, get up from behind the shield and hit the enemy), but forcefully!

Retiarius (lat. retiarius - fighter with a net) is one of the types of gladiators.

The armament of this gladiator was a net with which he was supposed to entangle the enemy, and a trident. The retiarius fought almost naked in a wide belt and a shoulder pad that covered the shoulder and left side of the chest. The retarius is the strongest type in the game of gladiators, and is quite dangerous for the opponent, because when he throws the net and hits it, after several hits on the opponent, he gains an advantage. However, he also has disadvantages, he does not have a shield, and this makes it difficult to defend against blows, and it is difficult for him to block them. The task of the retiarius was to throw a net so as to entangle the enemy from head to toe, and then finish him off with a trident or dagger. The retiarius had neither a helmet nor a shield - he had to rely only on his own dexterity. The fastest and most coordinated newcomers were taken into this group.

The secutor is the main enemy of the retiarius, so named because of its ability to prevent the retiarius from running away to a safe distance. Armed with a sword and a small shield. The smooth rounded helmet does not cling to the net and allows the pruner to slip out even if the net covers it. Secutor is also good against other types of gladiators who like to attack from afar.

Velite comes from the branch of the same name in the Roman army. Armed with three throwing darts, a small shield and a sword. He is dangerous at a distance, but weakly protected up close, so he usually tries to keep his distance if he still has darts in stock.

Murmilon - comes from one of the three very first types of gladiators, who was called a Gaul (as a representative of captives from Gaul) and in ancient times fought with a Samnite and a Thracian. On the helmets of the Gauls, or Murmillons (from the Latin “murma” - fish), a fish was depicted , and their weapons corresponded to the Gallic ones. Often the opponents of the Murmillons were the retiarii, who during the fight sang a song invented in ancient times: “I’m not catching you, I’m catching fish. Why are you running away from me, Gaul? . He fights barefoot, armed with a large Gallic shield and sword, and his helmet is decorated with a figurine of a fish.

Thracian - descends from one of the three very first types of gladiators, who was even then called a Thracian (as a representative of captives from Thrace) and in ancient times fought with a Gaul and a Samnite. However, now the Greeks often play the role of the Thracians. The Frankians were armed with a small round shield, a small curved sword, greaves on both legs, an iron armlet on the right arm, and a helmet with a visor with many holes that covered the entire face.

Sagittarius: Sagittarius (from Latin sagitta - "arrow") Originally horse archers, armed with a flexible bow capable of launching an arrow over a long distance.

Essedarii were gladiators who fought on war chariots. They were armed with lassos, slings, bows and clubs. The first essedarii were captive Britons whom Julius Caesar brought from his not very successful British campaign.

Praegenarii - technically They were not gladiators, although they sometimes took part in gladiatorial battles, but did not fight to the death. They opened the show with musical numbers and clowning. Their goal was to entertain the crowd so as not to kill each other. Praegenarii used a wooden sword, rudis. But they also used other weapons used by real gladiators, such as the lasso, gladius, saber, trident and net.The body armor and helmet worn by this type of gladiator were the same as those of the other types of gladiators they parodied: the Praegenarii were clowns. They adopted the body armor and gladiator helmets, but their only purpose was to entertain the crowd. Make for a laugh and provide a good warm-up for the main show. If the emperor was not satisfied with the performance, or he did not like the manner of presenting the pregnarius, then they were put up as a laughing stock for a non-lethal battle against the gladiators.

Were characteristic feature ancient Roman way of life. Their main participants were professional fighters trained to fight each other various types weapons. The equipment of gladiators was varied and initially corresponded to the characteristics of the weapons of various opponents of the Romans.

Over time, several main types of gladiator weapons were formed. We invite you to get to know them better in the new interactive special project Warspot.

To obtain details about the equipment of this or that warrior, Hover over the gladiator's name and click on it. In addition, below the illustration is Additional Information about those parts of equipment that were used by gladiators of all types.

Hoplomachus

Hoplomachus is a Greek name meaning a heavily armed fighter. Perhaps this type of gladiator weapons appeared in the 1st–2nd centuries AD. e. instead of the earlier Samnite. Hoplomachus fought in heavy weapons, which included a closed helmet with a wide brim and a high crest, a bracer made of bronze plates or quilted fabric on his right hand, high bronze leggings and legguards made of soft fabric on both legs. In battle, the hoplomakh covered himself with a small round bronze shield and tried to hit his opponent with a spear. He may also have had a sword or dagger as an additional weapon.

Bronze figurine of a hoplomachus. Antique collection, Berlin

The main opponents of the Hoplomachus were the similarly armed Murmillons or Thracians. The spear allowed the hoplomachus to hit his opponent at a distance exceeding the length of the enemy weapon. On the other hand, the small size of the shield did not provide him with reliable protection in defense and in close combat. He also could not press back his opponent with a large shield, as the Murmillo could. In a fight, the hoplomakh had to adhere to aggressive, offensive tactics, imposing the pace and distance of the battle on his opponent.

Hoplomachus Shield

In depictions of gladiators, the hoplomachus is usually armed with a round bronze shield, reminiscent of the shields of Greek hoplites or Macedonian phalangites of the Hellenistic era. Several such shields were found during excavations, and today they are kept in museums and a number of private collections.

The example of the shield shown in this photograph from the gladiator school in Pompeii has a diameter of 37 cm and weighs 1.6 kg. It consists of a bronze cladding attached to a non-preserved wooden base. The front surface of the shield and the rim are decorated with chased patterns in the form of several garlands of silver leaves. In the center is a round silver plate depicting the face of the Gorgon Medusa. The luxury of jewelry does not necessarily indicate that this is a piece intended only for display.

The small size of the shield does not hamper the warrior’s movements at all, but at the same time limits the protective function it provides. A gladiator armed with such a shield inevitably lost in close combat and therefore had to keep his opponent at a distance.

Hoplomachus and Thracian Leggings

Secutors, murmillos and provocateurs who used a large rectangular shield, as a rule, wore only one short greave on the left leg, which was put forward in a fighting stance. The Hoplomachus and Thracians, armed with small shields, had to compensate for its insufficient protective properties with the help of additional elements of equipment, primarily legguards and leggings. In reliefs and depictions, they usually wear a pair of greaves on both legs, with their length reaching approximately mid-thigh.

These images correspond to 10 bronze greaves found during excavations of a gladiator school in Pompeii. Their length varied from 48 to 58 cm. Top part The leggings were made in the form of a wide bell, slightly curved outward. The diameter indicates that the greaves were worn over a thick harness made of quilted fabric. They were secured to the leg with a belt passed through three pairs of rings. All leggings were luxuriously decorated with chased relief, symbolic images and engraved ornaments.

Secutor

The secutor, or "pursuer", is a heavily armed fighter who is first mentioned in sources around 50 AD. e. His protective equipment included a full-face helmet with no visor or brim, a padded bracer on his right arm, and a short greave on his left leg. The large rectangular shield of the secutor was shaped like the shield worn by Roman legionaries. He was armed with a short straight sword. The total weight of the secutor's equipment was 15–18 kg.

In its equipment, the secutor resembled a gall or a murmillo, from which it must have originated. The main difference between them was the opponent that these fighters had to face in the arena. For the secutor, such a constant enemy was the lightly armed retiarii, while the murmillo usually fought with other heavily armed gladiators - the hoplomachus and the Thracians. Even the helmet of a special design, which distinguishes the secutor from the murmillo, as well as the provocateur, which is similar in armament, was specially designed to fight the retiarius. Being practically devoid of protruding parts, this helmet allowed the secutor to more easily throw off the enemy’s net.

Secutor and retiary

A large shield and other equipment allowed the secutor not to be afraid of attacks, but at the same time they limited the fighter with their weight and constrained his movements. To hit his opponent with a short sword, the secutor had to get close to him. Retiarius, much lighter and more agile in comparison with his opponent, in turn, sought to wear him down with false attacks. Thus, the outcome of the battle between them was decided by the composure and endurance of the fighter.

Emperor Commodus, who reigned from 180 to 192, fought as a secutor in the arena.

Secutor's Helm

The helmets that belonged to the secutors include closed combat headpieces without brims, with a high crest on the top of the dome. Structurally, they resemble the helmets that provocateurs wore at the same time, but differ from them in a simpler design, as well as a minimal number of protruding parts on which the net of the retiarius, the traditional enemy of the secutor, could be caught.

The helmet's dome is forged from a single piece of bronze or iron and is equipped with a wide backplate that provides protection to the neck and upper shoulders. The helmet's visor consists of two large cheekpieces, suspended on side hinges to the bottom of the rim. In front, the junction of both cheekpieces was protected by a vertical plate-pin. The eye slits are two unprotected narrow round holes that greatly limit the viewing angle. The disadvantages of the helmet include the lack of holes for the ears, which doomed its owner to almost complete deafness. In addition, poor air exchange and significant weight made it possible to wear the helmet only for a very limited time.

Secutor, Murmillo and Taunter Shield

scutum), similar to those worn by Roman legionaries in the 1st century. Judging by the relationship with the figures of warriors on mosaics and frescoes, the dimensions of the shield were approximately 1 m in length and 0.5 m in width. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks, glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood in the center of the shield was about 6 mm and decreased towards the edges to lighten its weight. The outside of the shield was covered with leather and richly painted with geometric patterns and figures. The edges at the top and bottom were lined with bronze clips so that the wood would not be chipped from blows. The shield was held with the hand by a transverse handle passing through the center. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield is approximately 7.5 kg.

The shield provided the fighter with reliable body protection, but at the same time significantly limited his mobility. In a fight with a more lightly armed gladiator, this circumstance definitely gave the initiative to the enemy.

Leggings of the Secutor, Murmillo and Taunter

Leggings ( ocrea) were part of the protective armor that covered the leg from the knee to the instep of the foot, i.e. that part of it that was not usually covered by a shield. They were made of bronze, beating a metal sheet onto a convex matrix so that it took the shape of a shin. Leggings were put on over soft padded fabric harnesses. The diameter of archaeological finds indicates a significant thickness of the soft pad. In order for the greaves to sit tightly on the leg, they were fixed with the help of belts, which were passed through two or three pairs of rings, attached to the edges of the greaves on each side.

The number of leggings and their type were strictly regulated in each type of gladiator equipment. Secutors, myrmillons and provocateurs are usually depicted with only one short greave, which they wear on their left leg. During excavations in Pompeii, 9 such greaves were found, the length of which varied from 28 to 35 cm. All the greaves, with the exception of one, were luxuriously decorated with figured chased images and engraved ornaments.

Sword of the Secutor, Murmillo and Provocateur

Sword ( gladius) was the main weapon of gladiators, from which they got their name. Judging by the reliefs and mosaics of the 1st century BC. e. - 1st century AD e. this was the same weapon carried by Roman legionaries. It was a straight, double-edged blade 60–65 cm long and about 4 cm wide, with parallel blades turning into a long and thin point, equally well suited for slashing and thrusting. The heavy handle, which was carved from wood and ivory, shifted the balance of the weapon to its lower part, which allowed the fighter to deliver well-targeted piercing blows, quickly change the direction of attack, make feints, etc.

Judging by the images of the 1st–3rd centuries, at this time the length of the sword is greatly reduced, which complicates its practical use, but at the same time prolongs the duel and increases its spectacular component. During excavations of a gladiator school in Pompeii, three swords with a laurel-shaped blade and an ivory hilt were found. The blade length of all three specimens varies from 20 to 30 cm.

Retiarius

Retiarii first appeared on the scene in the early 1st century AD. They were a type of lightly armed fighter whose appearance resembled a fisherman. The retiarius performed wearing a tunic or loincloth, his left shoulder covered with a bronze pauldron, left hand- a bracer made of printed fabric. The retiarii did not wear any other protective equipment and fought with their heads uncovered. The retiarius' weapon consisted of a trident and a net. In battle, they tried to throw a net over the enemy and then hit him with a trident or a dagger, which they held in their left hand.

Mosaic of the 4th century. from the National Museum in Madrid, depicting the duel between the retiarius Calendion and the secutor Astyanax. The bottom panel depicts the beginning of the battle, when the retiarius managed to throw his net over the enemy. The top panel depicts the end of the battle. Calendion is wounded and, holding out his hand with a dagger, begs for mercy. His opponent won

The usual enemy of the retiarius was the secutor, and occasionally they could also fight against the murmillons. Surpassing any of their heavily armed opponents in mobility, the retiarii could choose tactics and control the tempo of the battle. They usually circled around their opponent for a long time, trying to unbalance him and wear him down with false attacks, after which they themselves could easily escape. When the enemy was exhausted, the retiarius could go on the attack. He used his net to hook his opponent, throw him off balance, knock him down and immobilize him.

The huge number of references in sources and inscriptions testifies to the entertainment of this kind of fights and their wide popularity among the public.

Retiarius' Trident

Retiarius Trident ( fuscina or tridens) originated from a fisherman's weapon. It was a short spear with three points. In images, retiarii usually hold it with two hands: the left one is brought forward, the right one is behind. With this grip, most of the blows should be delivered in an upward direction. Unfortunately, there is still not a single archaeological find of a trident, so it is difficult to say what its size is. Judging by the available images, the tips of the trident were small.

On one of the skulls found in the gladiator cemetery in Ephesus, traces were found left by the trident of a retiarius. The distance between the holes is 5 cm. The inlet holes are located at a large angle. This means that the fatal blow was struck from above while the defeated opponent was lying on the ground or kneeling.

Retiary network

Retiary Network ( rete) has the shape of a circle with a diameter of about 3 m. Lead weights were strengthened along its edges so that when cast the net would straighten out. The retiarius could use the net to hook and pull the enemy's sword out of his hands, or to throw the net over himself. Large meshes of the net easily clung to weapons and items of equipment, and it was difficult to immediately throw it off. By grabbing its edge, the retiarius could confuse his opponent, immobilize him, or knock him down. If the throw was unsuccessful, he could pull the fallen net towards him by the rope that was connected to his wrist, after which he would make a new attempt. To prevent the enemy from grabbing the rope and pulling him towards himself, the retiarius had a dagger with him with which he could cut it.

Retiarius Dagger

Retiarius carried a dagger in his belt, which he could use as an additional weapon if he lost his trident. This dagger may have looked like one of the short-bladed swords, 20–30 cm long, found during excavations of the gladiator school in Pompeii.

On one of the reliefs depicting a retiarius, his dagger looks like four points on one handle. Until recently, weapons of this form were considered the artist's invention. However, on one of the bones found during excavations of the gladiator cemetery in Ephesus, a trace of a wound inflicted by four points was discovered, which proves the reality of the existence of such weapons.

Retiarius Shoulderguard

Shoulder ( galerus) is one of the characteristic elements of the military equipment of the retiarii. They wore it on the left shoulder along with a bracer made of printed fabric on the left hand. Other gladiators usually wore bracers on their right hands. This feature allowed the retiarius to use his right hand more freely to cast his net. Accordingly, having his left side more protected than his right, the retiarius in battle had to stand with his left side turned to the enemy.

During excavations of a gladiator school in Pompeii, 3 chased bronze shoulder guards were discovered. One of them, shown in the picture above, is decorated with images of a crab, an anchor, a trident, and the other is decorated with cupids and the head of Hercules. The third depicts war trophies. The height of the shoulder pad is 30–35 cm, width is about 30 cm, weight is 1.2 kg. The wide brim makes the shoulder pad more like a small shield, which provided some protection to the head, face, neck and upper chest when struck from top to bottom and from right to left.

Thracian

The Thracians began to compete in gladiator competitions at least from the 1st century BC. e., when the Romans first encountered them during the wars on the Balkan Peninsula. Over time, a complex of weapons characteristic of the Thracians developed, which included a closed helmet with wide brims, a bracer for the right hand and a pair of high leggings. In their left hand the Thracians held a small rectangular, less often round, shield, and in their right hand a sword with a curved blade.

In the arena, Thracian gladiators usually fought with murmillos or hoplomachus, who had heavy weapons similar to their own. Armed with a less cumbersome shield, the Thracian had higher mobility compared to the Murmillo and could impose the tempo and tactics of the battle on him. Unlike the hoplomachus, who held his opponent on long distance, the Thracian sought to meet him chest to chest. In a close fight, the curved blade allowed him to deceive the enemy, very quickly change the direction of the attack, and also cut off the weakly protected back parts of the arms and legs.

The cunning and deceit of the Thracians were repeatedly noted in literary monuments. Their famous supporter was Emperor Caligula, who reigned from 37–41.

Thracian helmet

The Thracian gladiator helmet is easily identified based on the large number of available images. Structurally, it is similar to the Murmillo helmet and is a headband with wide brims and large cheek pads that completely cover the owner’s face. For viewing and breathing, there were large openings in the upper part of the cheekpieces, closed from the outside by an openwork lattice suspended on hinges or pins. The surface of the helmets was covered with chased images and engravings of mythological subjects.

Fragment of decoration of the crest of a Thracian gladiator's helmet, made in the form of a griffin

A distinctive feature of Thracian helmets was a high flat crest decorated with a griffin's head. The helmet was also decorated with feathers, which visually increased the warrior’s height and gave him an elegant look.

Thracian Shield

Thracian gladiators armed themselves with a rectangular, less often round, shield ( parma), which were smaller in size than their opponents. Structurally, it was constructed in the same way as the large shield of secutors, provocateurs and murmillos, and consisted of several layers of wooden planks, glued perpendicular to each other. The outside of the shield was covered with canvas, then leather, and finally richly painted. Variants of decoration can be observed in the example of numerous mosaics from Roman times. Such a shield provided good protection the upper part of the fighter's body.

Insufficient protection of the lower abdomen and hips had to be compensated for by a wide belt and leg guards. Thanks to the light weight of his shield, the Thracian invariably surpassed his heavily armed opponent in mobility and was able to impose on him the time and distance of the battle.

Thracian sword (sika)

Thracian gladiators armed themselves with a curved sword ( sica), which originated from single-edged curved blades, common during the 3rd–2nd centuries BC. e. in the north of the Balkan Peninsula. The length of the original finds of this weapon ranges from 40–50 cm, width - 4 cm. The straight handle of the shiki was pulled out from the blade and lined with wooden cheeks on both sides. The concave blade of the shiki had excellent cutting properties.

During excavations at the Roman camp of Oberaden in Germany, a wooden sword with a curved blade was discovered. The length of the blade is 30 cm, the hilt and handle have a characteristic Roman shape. It is most likely that the wooden sword was a training weapon and was lost during the evacuation of the camp in 8 BC. e.

Thracian Leggings

Hoplomachus and Thracians used the same greaves, which are described in more detail in the section on the hoplomachus.

Murmillo

Murmillo is a type of heavily armed gladiator who, in the 1st century AD. e. replaced the earlier Gaul. The Murmillo's defensive armament included a large rectangular shield, a closed helmet with a tall plume of feathers and a stylized image of a fish on the crest, bracers on the right arm, and greaves on the left leg. In battle, the Murmillo fought with a short straight sword. The same equipment was worn by the secutors, who differed from the murmillons only in a different type of helmet.

The main opponent of the Murmillons were the equally heavily armed Thracians and Hoplomachus. According to Quintilian, they also had to fight with lightly armed retiarii, but pictorial sources do not confirm this information.

Part of the relief from the burial crypt of Gaius Lusius Storax (25 - 50 AD) depicting a gladiator fight. In the center there are two Murmillons, on the sides - two Thracians

Heavy equipment, the total weight of which was 15–18 kg, required the fighter to developed muscles arms and shoulders, simply necessary to fight with a heavy shield and sword. Victory in battle and the very life of the Murmillo depended on his endurance, since he had to fight against enemies whose equipment was better suited for attack than his own. On the other hand, the large shield gave him significant defensive advantages.

A famous supporter of the Murmillons was the Emperor Domitian (81–96).

Murmillo Helmet

Gladiator helmets ( galea) are known from a large number of images and archaeological finds. Most of the latter was done during excavations of the gladiator school in Pompeii. They are divided into two large types - with and without fields. Each of them, in turn, is divided into two more subtypes.

The helmets that belonged to the Murmillons are easily identified based on a large number of relief and mosaic images. These helmets have wide brims, horizontal and almost flat all around in early models and rising in the front in an arch in later models. On top, the dome of the helmet is decorated with a massive box-shaped comb, into which a lush plume of feathers or horse mane was inserted. A pair of large cheek pads were suspended from the sides of the lower rim of the helmet on hinges, covering not only the cheekbones, but also the face of its owner. At the front, the cheekpieces closed with each other, forming a closed visor. Their Bottom part was bent forward to protect the throat. For viewing, the cheekpieces had large openings that were closed from the outside with grid plates.

All gladiator helmets are made of bronze with a thickness of 1–1.5 mm. The surface of the helmets was richly decorated with chased images and engravings. Part of the surface of the helmet could be covered with gold or silver or tinned with tin to imitate it. The weight of the helmet varies from 3.8 to 5 kg, which is approximately twice the weight of a soldier's helmet. True, the legionnaires had to wear their helmet throughout the day, and the gladiator put it on only before the fight, which lasted 10–15 minutes.

Murmillo Shield

The secutor, murmillo and provocateur were armed with a large rectangular shield of a convex shape ( scutum

Murmillo Leggings

Murmillo sword

Provocateur

Provocateurs (“challengers”) are mentioned already in the late republican period. They were a heavily armed type of gladiator whose equipment resembled a secutor. The provocateur wore a large rectangular shield, a helmet without a crest, first open, then completely closed, a metal or soft bracer on his right arm and a short bronze greave on his left leg. A special feature of his equipment was a small rectangular or rounded breastplate. The provocateur's weapon was a short straight sword. In the arena, provocateurs usually fought against each other. Only one inscription that has survived to our time testifies to the fight between a provocateur and a murmillo.

Provocateur's Helm

From reliefs of the 1st century BC. - beginning of the 1st century AD we can conclude that at first the provocateurs fought in open-type helmets with cheek pads attached on hinges to the lower part of the helmet rim to protect the face, and a wide backplate to protect the neck and upper back. This uniform was reminiscent of the army helmet worn by Roman legionnaires at that time. Then in the first half of the 1st century AD. e. In imitation of helmets of other gladiatorial types, the cheekpieces of the provocateurs were enlarged so that they began to completely cover the face. At the front, they closed with each other and were secured with a special clip, forming a closed visor. So that the fighter could see anything, a pair of round holes with a diameter of 8 cm were made in such a helmet, which were closed from the outside with round plate-lattices.

The provocateur's helmet is distinguished from the helmets worn by the Murmillons and Thracians by the absence of wide brims. Only the visor was riveted to the front of the helmet. On the other hand, it differs from secutor helmets that are structurally similar to it big number decorations and protruding parts, such as side tubes for attaching feathers.

Provocateur's Chestplate

As a rule, gladiators performed in the arena with a naked torso, which gave them the opportunity to demonstrate their figure to the public and play with the prominent muscles of the chest and shoulders. Only on some reliefs are heavily armed provocateurs depicted wearing a small rectangular plate on their chest to protect the heart area. This piece of equipment is known only from images; not a single example of the breastplate has yet been discovered.

Provocateur's Shield

Secutors, Murmillons and provocateurs were armed with a large rectangular shield of a convex shape ( scutum), the structure of which is described in more detail in the section on the secutor.

Provocateur's Leggings

Secutors, Murmillons and Provocateurs used similar greaves, which are discussed in more detail in the section on secutors.

Provocateur's Sword

Secutors, Murmillons and Provocateurs used the same swords, which are discussed in more detail in the section on the secutor.

Bracers

Bracers ( manica), which were worn by gladiators, as well as the legguards and greaves they used, could be made either from sheet bronze or from printed and quilted fabric in several layers. Due to the lack of material remains of these pieces of equipment, their design and cut are still a matter of debate.

Apparently, the padded fabric used to make this type of armor was quite thick. In any case, the poet Juvenal, describing the arms and legs of gladiators, enclosed in soft armor, likens them to the appearance of a thick wooden block. This is how they look on mosaics and frescoes depicting gladiators. In order for the armor to sit tightly in place, it had to be tightened with lacing and additionally secured with straps.

As a means of combat protection against enemy weapons, soft armor was quite effective. They protected their owners both from chopping blows and from thrusts from the edge of a sword. In addition, they gave the fighters an exotic appearance, which corresponded to the aesthetics of spectacle.

Strictly speaking, there is no clear evidence pointing to the material of gladiator bracers. The debate about whether they were made from soft printed fabric or metal plates continues to this day. One of the arguments of supporters of the first version is that during excavations of the gladiator barracks in Pompeii, many pieces of equipment were found, but no bracers were found. Their opponents point out that the small plates from which this armor was assembled could simply not be recognized. One of the arguments in favor of metal bracers is a number of finds of the latter during excavations of military warehouses of the 1st–2nd centuries, primarily in Newstead and Carlisle. If the bracers found there could be worn by soldiers, gladiators could theoretically also use them.

Structurally, Roman bracers were laminar armor, in which metal strips, assembled vertically, were connected to each other by riveting or stringing them on leather belts. The stripes had to be precisely calculated funnel-shaped. Running over each other, they formed an extremely flexible, elastic coating that did not hinder movement.

Loincloth

Loincloth ( subligaculum) was a common Roman undergarment. It was a triangular piece of fabric with each side about one and a half meters long. The two ends, corresponding to the corners at the base of the triangle, were tied with a knot on the stomach. The third end was passed between the legs and pulled under the knot formed by the other two ends, so that it hung like an apron. The loincloth was secured on top with a wide leather belt, which, in turn, was fastened with hooks or simple lacing. Judging by the frescoes and mosaics, the loincloth was of bright colors, perhaps also decorated with embroidery.

Although in most existing images gladiators are shown wearing only a loincloth, leaving the torso and thighs open, in some cases gladiators entered the arena in tunics.

On one wall in Pompeii you can read the words: “Caeladus the Thracian, the hero of girls who makes hearts beat.” These words, which have come down to us through the centuries, are silent witnesses to the charm that still captivates our imagination. The afternoon sun illuminates the amphitheater arena where the Thracian Celadus and other gladiators are fighting. They do not fight against formidable legionaries or barbarian hordes. They kill each other for the public's pleasure.

In the beginning, gladiators were prisoners of war and those sentenced to death. The laws of Ancient Rome allowed them to participate in gladiatorial fights. In case of victory (with the money received) one could buy back one’s life. But not all gladiators were slaves or criminals. Among them there were also volunteers who wanted to risk their lives for the sake of thrills or fame. Their names were written on the walls, respectable citizens talked about them. For almost 600 years, the arena was one of the most popular entertainments in the Roman world. Almost no one spoke out against this spectacle. Everyone, from Caesar to the last plebeian, wanted to see bloodshed.

It is a common thought that gladiator matches were inspired by Etruscan funeral rituals. However, it is known that at the funeral of Brutus Pera in 264 BC. Three gladiator fights took place. This incident was recorded by the Greek-Syrian historian Nicholas of Damascus, who lived during the period of Emperor Augustus. Over the next hundred years, the custom of fighting between slaves at funerals spread. In 174 BC. Titus Flaminin held munera - three-day battles, during which 74 gladiators fought.

They tried to celebrate Munera in December, simultaneously with Saturnalia. As you know, Saturn was the deity “responsible” for self-sacrifice. At the same time, the Mooners were not just a number in the funeral program. Fighting with animals – venation – was also practiced. Various wild animals brought from all over the empire were killed by specially trained fighters - the Venators. Venation served as a symbol of the subjugation of wild animals by Roman authority. Fights involving lions, tigers and other dangerous predators showed that the power of Rome covered not only people, but also animals. Any culture that was not part of Rome was declared barbaric, whose only purpose was to wait until Rome conquered it.

As more and more wealthy people became convinced that gladiatorial combat served in a great way to perpetuate the memory of the deceased, they more and more often included in their wills a requirement to conduct such a fight at their wake. Soon the public became tired of the simple battle of several pairs of gladiators. To impress people, it was necessary to stage grandiose spectacles in terms of the number of fighters or the method of combat. Gradually, munera became more spectacular and expensive. The fighters began to be equipped with armor, and the style of the armor often copied the style of one of the peoples conquered by Rome. Thus, the munera became a demonstration of the power of Rome.

Over time, munera became such a custom that a person who did not make a will to arrange a battle after his death risked discrediting his name after death as a miser. Many held games in honor of their deceased ancestors. The public was expecting another fight after the death of one of the wealthy citizens. Suetonius described the case that in Pollentia (modern Pollenzo, near Turin) the public did not allow one former centurion to be buried until the heirs organized a battle. Moreover, this was not a simple disorder in the city, but a real rebellion that forced Tiberius to send troops into the city. One deceased man ordered a fight between his former homosexual lovers in his will. Since all the lovers were young boys, it was decided to revoke this clause of the will. Munera eventually evolved into true gladiator fights, usually held in specially built arenas. The first arenas were built in the form of amphitheaters around the Forum Romanum. The stands were wooden, and the arena itself was covered with sand. Sand in Latin is garena, hence the name of the entire structure.

The amphitheater built by Josephus, known as the Colosseum, was the first stone structure of its kind. The floor of the arena was initially sandy, but then it was rebuilt, organizing a network of underground passages under it - hypogea. Various mechanical devices were located in the passages, making it easier to quickly change scenery in the arena. With the help of these moves, animals and gladiators were also released onto the stage.

Upon entering the amphitheater, spectators could purchase various souvenirs. Bone or clay tesserae served as entrance tickets. Tesserae were distributed free of charge several weeks before the start of the fighting. The audience was seated by special servants - lokarii.

There were seated stands for wealthy citizens. There were standing stands for the plebs. The Colosseum also had a gallery where the poorest spectators gathered. It was a matter of honor to take a place appropriate to one's status.

The tunnels leading to the stands were run by various “entrepreneurs” from food traders to prostitutes. As the program progressed, the audience's excitement grew. Classic writers describe the roar of the excited crowd as the "roar of a storm." Among the spectators in the stands there were also merchants offering food, flags and lists of gladiators. Bets were made on these lists. Ovid says that asking a neighbor to read a program was considered a plausible excuse for meeting a girl. However, under Augustus, women were allocated separate places. The front rows were occupied by senators, soldiers, married men, and students and teachers. The women were seated in the upper rows.

The shape of the amphitheater reflected heat inward and sound outward. Any sound made by the gladiator was clearly heard in the stands, even in the very top rows. Hence the rule arose that gladiators should not make unnecessary screams and remain silent even if wounded. Even in the worst seats, the spectators had a clear view of the arena.

By the end of the 2nd century BC. the battles, which lasted for several days in a row with the participation of hundreds of gladiators, no longer surprised anyone. There were also people for whom keeping and training gladiators became a profession. They were called lanistas. They were often former gladiators themselves. The social status of the Lanists was low; they were despised for making money from the deaths of other people, while remaining completely safe themselves. If gladiators were compared to prostitutes, then lanistas can be compared to pimps. To give themselves a little respectability, the lanistas called themselves "negotiator familia gladiatore", which in modern language can be translated as “commercial director of a gladiatorial troupe.” The essence of their activity was that they found physically strong slaves at slave markets, preferably prisoners of war and even criminals, bought them, taught them all the wisdom necessary to perform in the arena, and then rented them out to everyone who wanted to organize gladiator fights.

When entering the ring, gladiators had to proclaim: Ave Ceasar, morituri te salutant! - Those going to death greet you, Caesar! According to tradition, before the start of the fight, the gladiator fighters were divided into pairs and began the first demonstration fight - prolusio, its participants did not fight for real, their weapons were wooden, the movements were more reminiscent of a dance than a fight, accompanied by the accompaniment of a lute or flute. At the end of the “lyrical introduction” the bugle sounded and announced that the first real battle was about to begin. Gladiators who changed their minds about fighting were beaten and sometimes even killed with whips.

Junior gladiators entered into battle in pairs determined by lot. The gladiators' weapons were demonstrated to the public to convince everyone that they were military weapons. The identified couples dispersed around the arena to the sound of trumpets and the battle began. In addition to the fighters, there were doctors in the arena who gave commands to the fighters, directing the course of the battles. In addition, slaves stood ready with whips and sticks, called upon to “encourage” those gladiators who for some reason refused to fight at full strength. After the fight between inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

If any of the gladiators received a serious wound and could not continue the fight, he raised his hand to show surrender. From that moment on, his fate depended on the opinion of the audience. The vanquished could be spared as a worthy fighter, or he could be doomed to death as a coward and incompetent. Until recently, it was believed that spectators expressed their attitude towards the vanquished with the help of thumb. If the finger is pointing up, spare, if down, finish off. Recent studies have shown that the opposite was true. A finger raised up meant “put it on the blade,” and a finger down meant “weapon into the ground.” Considering the fact that the first to act were not very skilled gladiators, the fate of the vanquished was predetermined. The corpses of gladiators were removed from the arena using wheeled carts. The slaves removed the armor from the dead. These slaves had their own small unofficial “business.” They collected the blood of killed gladiators and sold it to epileptics, like the best remedy from their illness. After the fight between inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

In spectacular battles, when people fought with animals, the fight was considered over only if one of the opponents was killed: a man by an animal or an animal by a man.

Gladiators were at the very bottom of the social ladder, and after the uprising of Spartacus, the attitude towards gladiators became especially wary. Soldiers and guards watched over the gladiators, preventing attempts at disobedience or suicide. Prisoners of war sent to gladiatorial school wore slave collars and shackles that restricted movement. Volunteers, unlike slaves, did not wear chains. Free people, unlike slaves, did not pose a threat to society. Freed slaves were closer in status to free citizens. Petronius Arbiter, in his Satyricon, extols the virtues of the traveling party of gladiators, saying: “The three-day show is the best I have ever seen. These were not simple grunts, but mostly free people.”

Sometimes the scions of noble families also entered the arena. Petronius Arbiter mentions a woman from a senatorial family who became a female gladiator. Lucian of Samosata, who hated gladiator fights, talks about Sisinnius, a man who decided to join the gladiators in order to win 10,000 drachmas and pay a ransom for his friend.

Some people became gladiators out of a desire for thrills. Even emperors fell for this bait. Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD) was a fan of gladiator fights since childhood. This gave the opportunity to the political opponents of his father, Marcus Aurelius, to say that the emperor’s wife gave birth to a young heir from the gladiator. One way or another, Commodus spent almost all his time with the gladiators. As an adult, he began to participate in battles as a secutor. By the time of his death, Commodus had managed to win more than 700 fights, but Commodus’s contemporary Victor notes that the emperor’s opponents were armed with lead weapons.

The bulk of professional arena fighters came from gladiatorial schools. During the reign of Octavian Augustus (about 10 BC), there were 4 imperial schools in Rome: the Great, the Morning, where they trained bestiaries - gladiators who fought with wild animals, the school of the Gauls and the school of the Dacians. While studying at the school, all gladiators were fed well and treated professionally. An example of this is the fact that the famous ancient Roman physician Galen worked for a long time at the Great Imperial School.

The gladiators slept in pairs in small closets with an area of ​​4-6 sq.m. The training, which lasted from morning until evening, was very intense. Under the guidance of the teacher, former gladiator, beginners learned fencing. Each of them was given a wooden sword and a shield woven from willow. The chaotic ringing of metal brought melancholy to the spectators, so instructors taught gladiators to fight not only spectacularly, but also effectively. In the Roman army, it was customary for new recruits to train on wooden poles 1.7 m high. In gladiatorial schools, they preferred to use stuffed straws, which gave a more visual idea of ​​the enemy. To strengthen the muscles, the next iron training weapon after the wooden one was specially made 2 times heavier than a combat weapon.

When a beginner has adequately grasped the basics martial art, it, depending on abilities and physical training, were distributed into specialized groups of one type or another of gladiators. The least capable students ended up in andabats. They were armed with only two daggers, without any additional protection; this equipment was completed by a helmet with two holes that did not coincide with the eyes at all. Therefore, the Andabats were forced to fight each other almost blindly, waving their weapons at random. The servants “helped” them by pushing them from behind with hot iron rods. The public always had a lot of fun looking at the unfortunate people, and this part of the gladiatorial fights was considered the most fun by the Romans.

Gladiators, like Roman soldiers, had their own charter; some historians call it a code of honor, but in fact this is a conventional name. because Initially, a gladiator, by definition, was not a free person, and Roman slaves had no concept of honor as such. When a person entered a gladiator school, especially if he had been free before, in order to be legally considered a gladiator, he needed to perform a number of actions, many of which were, of course, purely formal. Gladiators swore and took an oath similar to a military oath, according to which they were to be considered “formally dead” and transferred their lives to the property of the gladiator school in which they lived, studied, trained and died.

There were a number of unspoken rules and conventions that every gladiator had to adhere to and not violate them under any circumstances. The gladiator always had to remain silent during the fight - the only way he could contact the public was through gestures. The second unspoken point was the observance of certain “rules” of dignity, which can be compared with the rules of the samurai. A gladiator fighter had no right to cowardice and fear of death. If a fighter felt that he was dying, he had to open his face to the enemy so that he could finish him off, looking into his eyes, or cut his own throat, taking off his helmet and opening his face and eyes to the audience, and they had to see what was in them there is not a drop of fear. The third law was that the gladiator could not choose his own opponent; obviously, this was done so that the fighters in the arena did not settle their personal scores and grievances. Entering the arena, the gladiator did not know until the very end who he would have to fight with.

It was fashionable among Roman aristocrats to have their own personal gladiators, who not only earned the owner money by performing, but also served as personal guards, which was extremely relevant during the civil unrest of the late Republic. In this regard, Julius Caesar outdid everyone, who at one time maintained up to 2 thousand gladiator-bodyguards, who made up a real army. It must be said that gladiators became not only under the compulsion of a slave owner or by a court sentence to the arena, but also absolutely voluntarily, in the pursuit of fame and wealth.

Despite all the dangers of this profession, a simple but strong guy from the Roman social bottom really had a chance to get rich. And although the chances of dying on the blood-soaked sand of the arena were much greater, many took the risk. The most successful of them, in addition to the love of the Roman mob, and sometimes even Roman matrons, received substantial cash prizes from fans and fight organizers, as well as interest on bets. In addition, Roman spectators often threw money, jewelry and other expensive trinkets into the arena for their favorite winner, which also accounted for a significant share of the income. Emperor Nero, for example, once gave the gladiator Spiculus a whole palace. And many of the famous fighters gave fencing lessons to everyone, receiving a very decent fee for this.

However, luck smiled on very few in the arena - the public wanted to see blood and death, so the gladiators had to fight seriously, driving the crowd into a frenzy.

Animal catchers worked tirelessly, devastating the Roman provinces in Africa and Asia, as well as adjacent territories. Thousands of professionals were engaged in this extremely dangerous, but equally profitable business. In addition to the fighting people, hundreds and thousands of lions, tigers, wolves, leopards, bears, panthers, wild boars, wild bulls, bison, elephants, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, antelopes, deer, giraffes, and monkeys died in the arenas. One day, the catchers even managed to bring polar bears to Rome! Apparently, there were simply no impossible tasks for them.

All these animals were victims of bestiarian gladiators. Their training was much longer than that of classical gladiators. Students of the famous Morning School, which received its name because animal persecution took place in the morning, were taught not only how to use weapons, but also training, and were also introduced to the characteristics and habits of different animals.

Ancient Roman trainers reached unprecedented heights in their art: bears walked on a tightrope, and lions placed a bestiary under the feet of a hunted but still living hare, monkeys rode the fierce Hyrcanian hounds, and harnessed deer to chariots. These amazing tricks were countless. But when the satiated crowd demanded blood, fearless venators appeared in the arena (from the Latin venator - hunter), who knew how to kill animals not only with various types of weapons, but also with their bare hands. They considered it the highest chic to throw a cloak over the head of a lion or leopard, wrap it up, and then kill the animal with one blow of a sword or spear.

Gladiator fights took place in different ways. There were fights between single pairs, and sometimes several dozen, or even hundreds of pairs fought simultaneously. Sometimes entire performances, introduced into the practice of mass entertainment by Julius Caesar, were played out in the arena. So, in a matter of minutes, grandiose decorations were erected, depicting the walls of Carthage, and gladiators, dressed and armed like legionnaires and Carthaginians, represented the assault on the city. Or a whole forest of freshly cut trees grew in the arena, and the gladiators depicted an ambush of the Germans attacking the same legionnaires. The imagination of the directors of ancient Roman shows knew no bounds.

And although it was extremely difficult to surprise the Romans with anything, Emperor Claudius, who ruled in the middle of the 1st century, completely succeeded. The naumachia (staged naval battle) carried out on his orders was of such a scale that it turned out to be capable of capturing the imagination of all residents of the Eternal City, young and old. Although naumachia were arranged quite rarely, since they were very expensive even for emperors and required careful development.

He held his first naumachia in 46 BC. Julius Caesar. Then, on the Campus Martius of Rome, a huge artificial lake was dug for a naval battle. This performance involved 16 galleys with 4 thousand oarsmen and 2 thousand gladiator soldiers. It seemed that it was no longer possible to organize a larger-scale spectacle, but in 2 BC. The first Roman emperor Octavian Augustus, after a year of preparation, presented the Romans with a naumachia with the participation of 24 ships and 3 thousand soldiers, not counting the oarsmen who played out the battle between the Greeks and Persians at Salamis.

Only the above-mentioned Emperor Claudius managed to break this record. Lake Fucinus, located 80 kilometers from Rome, was chosen to carry out the naumachia he had planned. No other nearby body of water simply could accommodate 50 real combat triremes and biremes, the crews of which included 20 thousand criminals sentenced to the arena. To do this, Claudius emptied all the city prisons, putting everyone who could bear arms on ships.

And in order to discourage so many criminals gathered in one place from organizing a rebellion, the lake was surrounded by troops. The naval battle took place in that part of the lake where the hills formed a natural amphitheater. There was no shortage of spectators: about 500 thousand people - almost the entire adult population of Rome - were located on the slopes.

The ships, divided into two fleets, depicted the confrontation between the Rhodians and the Sicilians. The battle, which began around 10 am, ended only at four o’clock in the afternoon, when the last “Sicilian” ship surrendered. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote: “The fighting spirit of the fighting criminals was not inferior to the fighting spirit of real warriors.” The waters of the lake were red with blood, not to mention the wounded, only more than 3 thousand people were killed. After the battle, Claudius pardoned all survivors, with the exception of several crews who, in his opinion, avoided the battle. The audience was absolutely delighted with what they saw. None of the subsequent emperors managed to “outplay” Claudius. It is no coincidence that his death was mourned by literally the entire city, because he, like no one else, perhaps with the exception of Nero, knew how to entertain the public. And even though during his reign Claudius showed himself to be far from brilliant statesman, this did not prevent him from being perhaps the most revered emperor among the people.

It happened that the fight dragged on, and both wounded gladiators could not defeat each other for a long time. Then the spectators could stop the fight themselves and demand that the editor - the organizer of the games - release both fighters from the arena. And the editor obeyed the “voice of the people.” The same thing happened if the gladiator pleased the public so much with his skill and courage that they demanded the immediate presentation of a wooden training sword - rudis - as a symbol of complete liberation not only from fights in the arena, but also from slavery. Of course, this only concerned prisoners of war and slaves, but not volunteers.

The name of the gladiator Flamma has survived to this day, during whose career admiring spectators four times demanded that he be given a wooden sword, and he refused all four times! It is possible that Flamma showed such unprecedented stubbornness in the pursuit of fame and money. One way or another, he succeeded; he left the arena voluntarily, more or less unharmed, and at a fairly mature age and being the owner of a decent fortune.

Gladiatorial fights were not alien to the most educated people of that time. Cicero, for example, assessed these games this way: “It is useful for people to see that slaves can fight courageously. If even a simple slave can show courage, then what should the Romans be like? In addition, games accustom warlike people to the form of killing and prepare them for war.” Pliny, Tacitus and many other prominent Roman writers and thinkers were ardent fans of gladiatorial shows. The only exception was, perhaps, the philosopher Seneca, who strongly advocated for their prohibition, which not least led to his forced suicide on the orders of his crowned pupil Nero.

Almost all Roman emperors sought to outdo each other in the grandeur of their games in order to win the love of the crowd. Emperor Titus Flavius, at the opening of the Colosseum, which accommodated up to 80 thousand spectators and immediately became the main arena of Ancient Rome, ordered to kill different ways 17 thousand Jews who worked on its construction for ten years. Emperor Domitian, being a virtuoso in archery, loved to amuse spectators by hitting the head of a lion or bear with arrows so that the arrows seemed to become horns for them. And he killed naturally horned animals - deer, bulls, bison, and so on - with a shot in the eye. It must be said that the Roman people loved this ruler very much.

There were also merry fellows among the Roman emperors. The name Gallienus, for example, is very connected funny story. One jeweler, who sold false precious stones and was sentenced to the arena for this, was driven into the middle of the arena by the bestiaries and placed in front of a closed lion cage. The unfortunate man waited with bated breath for an inevitable and, moreover, terrible death, and then the cage door swung open and out came... a chicken. The jeweler, unable to withstand the stress, fainted. When the audience had laughed enough, Gallienus ordered the announcement: “This man deceived, therefore he was deceived.” Then the jeweler was brought to his senses and released on all four sides.

By the beginning of the 4th century, gladiatorial fights and animal persecution began to gradually decline. This was the time when the once Great Roman Empire began to literally languish under the blows of numerous “barbarian” tribes. The situation was aggravated by the ongoing economic crisis - the Romans themselves practically did not work, and imported goods were constantly becoming more expensive. Therefore, the Roman emperors of that period had enough worries besides arranging expensive games. And, nevertheless, they continued, although without the same scope. Gladiator fights were finally banned 72 years before the fall of the Roman Empire.