Yoga as a school of philosophy of ancient India. History and origin of yoga. Main schools of Yoga

8. Main directions of philosophy of Ancient India. Orthodox philosophical schools: yoga, nyaya, Vedanta, Vaisheshika.

Buddhism is a religious and philosophical teaching (dharma) about spiritual awakening (bodhi), which arose around the 6th century BC. e. in Southeast Asia based on the ideas of Buddha Shakyamuni.

Jainism is a religious and philosophical doctrine that arose in India around the 6th century BC. e., which denies the authority of the Vedas and the superiority of the hereditary caste of priests.

As a result, systems arise that defeat them, based on the materials of sacred texts. Within Brahmanism, 6 “darshans” (ways of viewing) arise, which are all considered an equal form of interpretation of truth.

Mimamsa ("explanation" of the Vedic text on sacrifice) deals with the explanation of ritual, but in its methods can be classified as an atheistic pluralist system,

Vedanta (the completion of the Vedas) in the Brahma Sutra, based on the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, teaches about the emergence of the world from Brahman; individual souls, through knowledge or love of God - bhakti - automatically achieve salvation, achieve unity with God, without merging with him. Influenced by the idealism of late Buddhist philosophy, Shankara (circa 800 AD) gives the texts a new interpretation, which regards the previous teaching about the real transformation of Brahma only as a lower level of truth, as an appearance of truth; in reality, all diversity is an illusion (maya), individual souls are identical to the unchanging Brahma.

Samkhya (“reasonable weighing” or “enumeration”) preaches atheistic pluralism: the primary substance is only apparently connected with a kind of soul-spirit; overcoming this illusion guarantees liberation,

Yoga (tension, training) is the practice of contemplation; its theoretical basis is Samkhya, but it also recognizes a personal God.

Nyaya (rule, logic) - the doctrine of forms of thinking, which developed the five-term syllogism.

Vaisheshika merged into one system with yoga, which sought to establish differences between everything that opposes us in the external and internal world. Vaisheshika developed the doctrine of categories and atomism; being theistic, she saw the liberation of man in the separation of the soul from all material things and its transformation into an organ of thinking.

Jainism and Buddhism are non-theistic faiths. While the first recognizes eternal spiritual monads and material entities, the second denies the existence of an unchanging substance. The personality and the world it cognizes are born through the interaction of naturally occurring transitory factors - dharmas. Recognizing that there is no unchanging individual, but only a stream of interacting dharmas, is a prerequisite for achieving nirvana. The extreme pluralism of early Buddhism, the pluralism of the Hinayana, or “small vehicle,” is opposed to the monism of the Mahayana, or “greater vehicle.” According to the “middle teaching” of Nagarjuna (1st-2nd centuries), dharmas do not have true existence, because they are transitory; only the incomprehensible “emptiness”, accessible only to contemplation, is real. Samsara and nirvana from the highest point of view of reality are one and the same. In the later teaching of Asanga and Vasubandhu (I-IV centuries) about the “uniqueness of consciousness,” Buddhism comes closer to Vedanta in that it considers the spiritual as the ultimate being, perceived through yoga, when the external world is cognized as a projection of consciousness.

Yoga is a concept in Indian culture, in a broad sense meaning a set of various spiritual, mental and physical practices developed in different directions of Hinduism and Buddhism and aimed at managing the mental and physiological functions of the body in order to achieve an elevated spiritual and mental state for the individual. In a narrower sense, yoga is one of the six orthodox schools (darshans) of Hindu philosophy. The original goal of yoga is to change the ontological status of man in the world.

The Nyaya system (Sanskrit “law, rule”) is one of the six main theistic schools of Indian philosophy (Mimamsa, Vedanta, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika). This is a realistic philosophy (the theory according to which things, objects of the external world, exist independently of all knowledge, of relation to the mind), based mainly on the laws of logic. Its basic text is the Nyaya Sutras.

Vedanta (Sanskrit “the end of the Vedas”) is one of the six orthodox schools (darshan) in Hindu philosophy. In essence, Vedanta is the general name for a number of philosophical and religious traditions in Hinduism, united by theme, subject, and partly by the fundamental texts and commentaries written on them, and shared by proposed solutions. In addition to the Vedas and Upanishads, the Vedanta Sutras of Vyasa are considered authoritative texts in all directions of Vedanta, and in the theistic schools the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana.

Initially, this name referred to philosophical texts adjacent to the Vedas - the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads, which are the explanatory and additional part of the four Vedas. Subsequently, these ancient Vedic texts served as the basis for the orthodox (astika) school of Indian philosophy, which came to be called Vedanta. Vedanta is also called Uttara Mimamsa, that is, the second, later, or higher Mimamsa, in contrast to another school of Indian philosophy - Purva Mimamsa - the first Mimamsa. Purva Mimamsa is usually called simply Mimamsa and it focuses on the interpretation of the meaning of Vedic fire sacrifices and the mantras used in them, as laid down in the Samhitas of the four Vedas and in the Brahmanas. Vedanta is mainly devoted to the philosophical interpretation of the teachings of the Aranyakas and Upanishads.

The Vedanta tradition of Hinduism interpreted the Upanishads and explained their meaning. Vedanta, like the Vedic scriptures on which it is based, primarily focuses on self-realization - the individual's understanding of his original nature and the nature of the Absolute Truth - in its personal aspect as Bhagavan or in its impersonal aspect as Brahman. Vedanta, which means "ultimate knowledge" or "the end of all knowledge", is not limited to any particular text or texts and there is no single source for Vedantic philosophy. Vedanta is based on unchanging, absolute, spiritual laws that are common to most religions and spiritual traditions of the world. Vedanta, as the ultimate knowledge, leads to a state of self-realization or cosmic consciousness. Both historically and in the modern context, Vedanta is understood as an entirely transcendental and spiritual state, and not as a concept that can be comprehended simply through the material mind.

The Vaisheshika system (Sanskrit, “excellent, distinguished”) is one of the six main theistic schools of Indian philosophy (Mimansa, Vedanta, Yoga, Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika). It was founded by the sage Kanada (III - II centuries BC .), his real name is Uluka. Vaisheshika gets its name from the word vishesha, which means peculiarity. The nickname Canada means atom eater.

The impulse of the Vaisesika system is its hostility to Buddhist phenomenalism. While recognizing the Buddhist point of view on the sources of knowledge: perception and logical inference, Vaisesika at the same time believes that souls and substances are immutable facts. She does not associate herself with problems of theology.

Yoga is a set of various spiritual, mental and physical practices developed in different directions of Hinduism and Buddhism and aimed at managing the mental and physiological functions of the body in order to achieve an elevated spiritual and mental state for the individual. In Indian philosophy, yoga is one of the six orthodox schools of philosophy.

A yogi is a follower of the religious and philosophical teachings of a yogi, studying spiritual and physical practices with the goal of achieving samadhi - awareness of one’s true nature and spiritual union with the transcendental Reality.

Yoga contains the basics of interpretation of the origin of the world and understanding of human nature, methods of spiritual self-improvement. The concept of this teaching has a huge number of admirers. As a special system of ancient Indian wisdom, yoga consists of theoretical and practical foundations, some sections, methods and directions. The principles of yogic practice are mentioned in the Vedas, Ramayana and Mahabharata (part of the Bhagavad Gita). The term “yoga” itself can be found in the early Upanishads, which are commentaries on the Vedas.

Philosophy of classical yoga

The basis of yoga philosophy is Samkhya. So, all existence includes two substances Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti represents everything material in the existing world. This is something that can be seen, heard or felt in some other way, and recorded with high-precision instruments.

The concept of “Purusha” contains the spiritual principle, the so-called eternal Spirit. Ishvara - God among all spiritual beings - is a manifestation of Purusha. He did not create the world and does not control it, but he has the power to unite and separate the spiritual from the material. If Prakriti cannot be realized, then Purusha is conscious. If Prakriti is constantly changing, then Purusha is not subject to change, therefore he is outside of time and space. He is like an observer of the changing picture of the world.

In the teachings of yoga, a person, like the whole world, is a kind of microcosm that unites Prakriti and Purusha. The material in a person is his physical body, thoughts, emotions, memory, etc. The spiritual, that is, Purusha, represents his consciousness, the so-called “I” - unchanging and eternal. Purusha consciously directs Prakriti. This can be compared to people lost in the forest, where Purusha is legless and Prakriti is blind. And only by uniting will they be able to make their way through the forest and free themselves.

From attachment to the objective world, which gives rise to desires and expectations, a person experiences suffering. As long as we are attached to the forms of Prakriti, we leave imprints (vasanas) in our buddhi (instrument of perception of the external world), therefore our Karma will exist - a dependence of a cause-and-effect nature. After the death of the physical body, vasanas remain, and the soul passes into another entity. This is called reincarnation, and the series of rebirths is called the wheel of samsara.

It is possible to free yourself from suffering, says yoga. It is the practice of yoga, a set of exercises for the body and spirit, and philosophical reflections that will help you realize Purusha, give up striving for something material, and free yourself from attachments. After this realization, the soul leaves the wheel of samsara. The achieved existence can only be compared with Ishvara - there is no suffering, but there is awareness.

There are many different schools of yoga, but 4 main directions can be named:

1. Bhakti - the path of love and devotion
2. Jnana - the path of knowledge
3. Karma is the path of action
4. Raja - the path of introspection

Bhakti yoga

Bhakti is translated from Sanskrit as love and devotion. Thus Bhakti Yoga is connection with God through love and devotion. The main practice of this type of yoga is deep meditation. A person must constantly feel close spiritual contact with his deity, literally touching his souls. You need to concentrate on your idea of ​​the high qualities of God as a person, but not a being in the flesh, but a highly spiritual and highly developed entity. After this, a person must realize that he is not just a mortal, temporary material body, but an eternal and immaterial soul.

An important point in the practice of Bhakti yoga is the continuous daily repetition of the Hare Krishna Mahamantra, also called Japa meditation. To do this, you need to purchase or make your own rosary, consisting of 109 beads, where the 109th bead will be the starting one.

Maha-mantra: Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare.

Through this practice, a person gradually restores the once lost connection with God. This practice is considered Yuga Dharma, i.e. the most authoritative practice in the current era of Kali Yuga.

Jnana yoga

Jnana Yoga is a path of inquiry that aims to overcome the limitations of the intellect or logical abilities of a person. Higher awareness can never arise from rational thinking. Jnana yoga is the path to intuitive knowledge, and it is illogical - neither logical nor illogical, surpassing both.
On this path, a person asks questions about the essence of being and his true nature. Success on this path requires effort, focus, and total absorption in the study. Without these qualities, insight is impossible. Insight does not mean receiving standard answers, but gaining intuitive knowledge.

For it to work successfully, you need to carefully adhere to three things:

1) SHRAVAN or listening: listening to sacred scriptures, philosophical discourses, and above all, living Masters of spirituality with personal experience of Reality who can transmit their life impulse to those who come into contact with them, since it is in the company of the truly awakened soul that man awakens from its long hibernation.

2) MANAN or thinking: it consists of intensive and thoughtful reflection on what is heard and understood, in order to concretize the abstract and make intellectual concepts the pulse of immediate life through the careful exercise of discrimination that distinguishes truth from falsehood at every step. This leads to the liberation of a person's soul from the loop of egoism by all possible means at his command. It's similar to churning butter from buttermilk.

3) NIDHYASAN, or practice: it consists of transferring the center of gravity from the ephemeral and changing “I” to the permanent and eternal “I”, from the circle to the center of one’s being. This gradually produces non-attachment to the pairs of opposites - wealth and poverty, health and illness, fame and shame, pleasure and pain, etc. — in which everyone tends to go with the flow in the ordinary course of existence.

Karma yoga

Karma yoga is also known as buddhi yoga, one of the four main types of yoga in Hindu philosophy. Karma yoga is based on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, the sacred Hindu scripture in Sanskrit, and its main meaning is to perform prescribed duties (dharma) without attachment to the fruits of labor. As a result of such activities, it becomes possible to achieve moksha (salvation) or love of God (bhakti). This occurs by performing prescribed duties without selfish motives with the sole purpose of pleasing God.

Raja yoga

Raja Yoga (Royal Yoga), also known as classical yoga, which is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The main goal of Raja Yoga is to control the mind through meditation (dhyana), realize the difference between reality and illusion, and achieve liberation. Since the practice of Raja Yoga is divided into eight stages, it is also called Ashtanga yoga"eight limb yoga":

1. Pit- norms of behavior - self-restraint
2. Niyama- following religious rules and regulations - complete dedication to spiritual practices
3. Asana- unifying mind and body through physical activity
4. Pranayama- control of breathing, leading to unification of body and mind
5. Pratyahara- distraction of the senses from contact with their objects
6. Dharana- purposeful concentration of mind
7. Dhyana- meditation (internal activity that gradually leads to samadhi)
8. Samadhi- a peaceful superconscious state of blissful awareness of one's true nature

Sometimes these eight levels are divided into four lower and four higher. In this case, lower levels are associated with hatha - yoga, and the highest ones belong to raja - yoga. The simultaneous practice of the three higher stages is called samyama.

Hatha yoga

This direction of yoga proclaims the unity of the spiritual and physical. With special practices, it allows you to achieve harmony between these two aspects. The practice of hatha yoga is based on the following components:

1. Pranayama are special breathing exercises, the purpose of which is to teach a person emotional self-control. In the process of performing pranayama, internal organs are also massaged.
2. Asanas - performing exercises in special poses in combination with special breathing techniques and concentration. Hatha yoga consists of the practice of static exercises that can be performed while inhaling, exhaling, or holding the breath. Asanas should not be done to the limit of your physical strength. On the contrary, they should relax and pacify. It is important that there is no discomfort. The appearance of pleasant sensations during asanas is an indicator that prana is circulating correctly throughout the body.
3. Meditation. Her main goal is to listen to herself, to shed all the “excess” and pretense. In the process of relaxation, physical and psychological relaxation occurs, energy is directed to the spiritual improvement of a person.
4. Shatkarmas are exercises and methods of hatha yoga that allow you to cleanse your internal organs. Shatkarmas are a general name for cleansing practices. It can be translated from Sanskrit as “six actions.” Indeed, hatha yoga has six practices for cleansing the body:
   1. Dhouti – techniques for cleansing the digestive tract;
   2. Basti – toning and lavage of the large intestine;
   3. Nauli (Lauliki) – special techniques for massaging the abdominal area to strengthen the abdominal organs;
   4. Neti – cleansing and rinsing the nasal passages;
   5. Kapalbhati - a set of three simple techniques that allow you to cleanse the anterior lobe of the brain;
   6. Trataka – strengthening the optic nerves and eyes, improving vision, developing mindfulness through the technique of close contemplation of an object.
5. Proper nutrition. In yoga, special attention is paid to this aspect. To be healthy and happy with life, it is enough to eat simple, natural food and not overeat.

The practice of hatha yoga allows you to achieve different goals: awakening Kundalini - a special energy concentrated at the base of the spine; restoration or maintenance of health, longevity; awareness of your higher self (atman); achieving harmony between the external and internal, a state of enlightenment (samadhi).

"Introduction to Indian Philosophy" is a textbook on Indian philosophy, considered by the authors as a synthesis of a number of previous philosophical schools and systems. S. Chatterjee and D. Datta strive to identify the national characteristics of Indian philosophy and emphasize its theoretical, strictly philosophical issues. The authors strive to present the views of numerous schools in ancient Indian philosophy as briefly and clearly as possible. From the work you can get an idea of ​​the struggle between materialism and idealism, the struggle between the followers of early Buddhism and Brahmanists, as well as get acquainted with the foundations of the philosophical system of the Vedantist Shankara as the source of modern Hinduism.

I. INTRODUCTION

The philosophy of yoga is an invaluable gift from the great Indian sage Patanjali for everyone inclined to the realization of the spirit. This philosophy provides great support to those who seek to understand the existence of the spirit as an independent principle, free from all restrictions of the body, senses and mind 1. It also bears the name of its founder and is called the Patanjali system.

The Yoga Sutra, or Patanjala Sutra, is the first work of this philosophical school. Vyasa wrote a short but important commentary on it called “Yoga-bhasya” or “Vyasa-bhasya”. Moreover, Vachaspati's Tattva Vaisaradi is a good sub-commentary on Vyasa's work; Bhojaraja's Vritti and Yoga Maniprabha are very simple and popular works on the yoga system. There are other useful manuals on yogi philosophy - “Yoga-varttika” and “Yoga-sara-sangraha” by Vijnanabhikshu.

Patanjali's system, that is, yoga, is divided into four parts (pad). The first part, called samadhipada, dedicated to the nature, goals and forms of yoga; it deals with modifications of the internal organ (citta) and various methods of achieving yoga.

Second part - sadhanapada- devoted to kriya yoga(action yoga): means of achieving samadhi(concentration), bell-bottom 2, that is, spiritual states that cause misfortune, the fruits of actions (karma-phala) and their painful nature, the fourfold form of suffering, its cause, cessation and means of ending suffering.

The third part - vibhutipada- gives a description of the internal aspects of yoga, supernatural powers acquired through its practical application, etc.

The fourth part is called kaivalapada; it is devoted to describing the nature and forms of liberation, considering the reality of the transcendental I and another world, etc.

Yoga is closely related to the Samkhya system. It is the application of Samkhya theory to the practice of everyday life. Yoga in general shares the Samkhya theory of knowledge, recognizing, like the latter, three sources of knowledge: perception, inference and evidence of the Holy Scriptures; yoga also recognizes the Samkhya metaphysics with its twenty-five principles, but adds to them faith in God as the supreme I, different from others I. This system is especially interesting in that it practically applies yoga, considering it a reliable means of achieving Vivekanda - discriminatory knowledge, which is considered in the Samkhya system as the most important condition for liberation.

The importance of yoga as an important method of comprehension and realization of the spiritualistic truths of Indian philosophy is recognized by almost all Indian systems of philosophy. The importance of the practical application of yoga is spoken of even in the Vedas, Upanishads, Smritis and Puranas 3. Until the mind or intellect of a person is purified and established, he cannot properly understand anything in philosophy or religion. We must have a pure heart and a bright mind if we strive to know and practically apply philosophical and religious truths. The use of yoga is the best way of self-purification, that is, purification of the body and intellect. Therefore, almost all systems of Indian philosophy insist on the use of yoga as a necessary practical side of the philosophy of life.

The Patanjali system deals with a special study of the nature and forms of yoga, the various stages of its practical application, as well as other important issues related to this. Like the proponents of Samkhya and other systems of Indian philosophy, the founder of yoga, Patanjali, argues that liberation must be achieved through direct knowledge of difference myself from the physical world, including the body, mind and “our self” (ego) (viveka-jnana). But this is only possible if we can suppress and limit the functions of the body and senses, mind-manas, intellect and, finally, ego (that is, our empirical I, self-object) and at the same time have self-awareness, the experience of the transcendental spirit (purusha). This would convince us that We above the mind-body complex, above the senses and intellect, and above the sufferings or joys of the individual ego. I, as will be shown, must stand above any physical reality with its spatio-temporal and cause-and-effect structure. This is awareness myself as a free, immortal spirit, standing outside of evil and suffering, death and destruction. In other words, this is an achievement, a state of freedom from all suffering and unhappiness - liberation. The yoga system indicates a practically feasible path of self-knowledge for a religious person, for one who sincerely strives to follow the dictates of the spirit. The Samkhya system pays more attention to the knowledge of difference I from the rest of the world as a means of achieving liberation, although she does not forget to recommend such practical methods of achieving liberation as study, meditation and constant concentration on the truth 4.

Yoga philosophy focuses on practical methods of purification and concentration to understand the difference myself from body and mind and thereby to achieve liberation. But this will be explained below, in the section "Ethics of Yoga"; here we must consider the psychology of yoga, the subject of which is the study of nature I, the mind and its functions, as well as their relationships.

II. PSYCHOLOGY OF YOGA

In the Samkhya Yoga system, individual I (jiva) considered a free spirit, united with the physical body and more closely related to the subtle body, consisting of the senses, mind-manas, ego and intellect.

By it's nature I represents pure consciousness, free from the limitations of the body and from the fluctuations of the mind-citta. I unknowingly confuses himself with citta. Chitta is the first product of prakriti, in which the element sattva, that is, the power of manifestation, naturally prevails over the forces of rajas and tamas. The mind-chitta in its essence is devoid of consciousness, but, being close I, it reflects consciousness with its inherent power of manifestation I to such an extent that it begins to appear conscious and intelligent. Chitta is different from manas, which is the inner sense. When the mind-citta is connected with any object through the mind-manas, it takes the form of that object. I recognizes objects through modifications of the mind-citta that correspond to the forms of the cognizable objects. Although I does not actually undergo any change or modification, but in view of its reflection in the changing states and processes of the mind-chitta, it must seem to be subject to change and pass through different states of the mind-chitta, just as the moon appears to move when we we see its reflection in moving waves 5.

There are many different modifications of mind-citta, that is, conscious mental states. They can be divided into five groups: true knowledge (pramana), false cognition (viparyaya), knowledge of words (vikalpa), dream (nidra) and memory (smriti).

True knowledge is divided into perception, logical inference and oral testimony. In the Yoga system they are explained in almost the same way as in the Samkhya system.

Viparyaya is the incorrect cognition of objects as something they really are not. It also includes doubt, or uncertain knowledge.

Vikalpa is simply a verbal idea generated by words to which no real facts correspond. When you hear the words "Rahu's head"* 42 you have an idea of ​​the difference between Rahu and his head, although in fact there is no difference between them, since Rahu is only the head. Likewise, the phrase “soul consciousness” evokes the idea of ​​two related distinct entities (soul and consciousness) that are in reality identical.

Sleep is a kind of mental modification (citta-vritti). It arises due to the predominance of tamas in the mind-chitta, as well as the subsequent cessation of the waking state of consciousness and the sensation of dreams. Sleep can be deep, without dreams (sushupti). Some philosophers believe that during healthy sleep there is no mental activity or states of consciousness. But this is not true. After waking up from a sound sleep, we say: “I slept well,” “I didn’t feel anything,” etc. Such recollection of what happened during sleep involves direct experience of the dream state. Therefore, sleep presupposes the presence of some conscious state of mind, a process in which the absence of cognition is felt (abhava-pratyaya-alambana vritti).

Memory is the reproduction of past experiences without any changes or additions.

All conscious mental states and processes (citta-vritti) can be included in these five types by modification. Therefore there is no need for any other types of cognitive functions of the mind (citta-vritti) 6. When the citta passes into one or another conscious state of mind, I is reflected in it and tends to consider it its state. This gives the impression that I itself moves from one state of mind-citta to another and experiences different stages of life. I considers itself as a being that is born and grows, and eventually ages and dies. All this leads to the belief that I sleeps and awakens, imagines and remembers, makes mistakes and corrects mistakes, etc. However, in reality I(purusha) is above all phenomena related to the body and mind, above all physical and psychological changes - such as sleep and wakefulness, birth and death, etc. It is the mind-chitta that is in a state of sleep and wakefulness, cognizes and doubts, thinks and remembers. I it seems to be contained in these functions, for it is reflected in the mind-chitta, which stands before it, like a mirror before a person. I it also seems to be subject to five types of misfortunes (klesha): 1) avidya- erroneous understanding of the non-eternal as eternal, not me How I, unpleasant as pleasant, unclean as pure; 2) asmita- false understanding or perception I as identical with the intellect; 3) raga- desire for pleasures and means to achieve them; 4) dvesha- aversion to pain and its causes; 5) abhinivesa- instinctive fear of death in all living beings 7.

As long as changes or modifications take place in the citta, I is reflected in it and, in the absence of the ability to distinguish itself from the rest of the world, identifies itself with it. As a result I feels pleasure or pain from the objects of the world and loves or hates them accordingly. For I it means dependence. Therefore, if we want to achieve liberation, then we must somehow restrain the activities of the body, senses and mind-manas and finally stop all modifications of the mind-citta. When the waves of empirical consciousness (karya-cittas) subside and leave the chitta in a state of perfect calm (karana-citta), I realizes itself as something different from the mind-body complex, as a free, immortal, self-luminous consciousness. The goal of yoga is to achieve this state through the cessation of the functions of the mind-citta.

III. ETHICS OF YOGA

1. Nature and forms of yoga 8

Yoga means cessation of activities, modifications of the mind-citta. It does not mean any contact between an individual I and some other reality, similar, for example, to God, or the absolute. As we have already indicated, the goal of yoga is to prevent identification myself with various modifications of citta. But this is not possible as long as such modifications exist, and therefore I does not clearly understand its difference from citta. Based on this, yoga aims to slow down and stop all modifications of the mind.

There are five states or stages of spiritual life (citta-bhumi). Chitta consists of the elements sattva, rajas and tamas. The different states of citta depend on the degree of presence and action of these elements in it. These states of mind-citta are called: kshipta- restless, mudha- inactive, vikshipta- absent-minded, ekagra- concentrated, niruddha- reserved. Each such state represents some suppression by modification of citta. Moreover, one state of citta excludes others. Thus, love and hatred are by their nature opposite and incompatible with each other. But still yoga cannot be achieved at any stage of citta. At the first stage, called kshipta, Chitta is influenced by the elements of rajas and tamas, attracted by sensory objects and serves to achieve power. Chitta switches from one object to another, without stopping at any one. This state is in no way conducive to yoga because it does not help us control the mind and senses. Second stage - mudha- is caused by an excess of the element tamas in chitta and therefore means a tendency towards vice, ignorance, sleep, etc. At the third stage, called vikshipta- scattered - chitta is free from the influence of tamas and comes into contact only with rajas. At this stage, he has the ability to manifest all objects and perform virtuous actions, cognize, etc. This is the stage of temporary concentration of the chips on some object, which follows absent-mindedness. Such a state cannot be called yoga, because in it neither modifications of the mind nor our anxieties completely stop, nor do our sufferings from erroneous knowledge and everything else disappear.

The fourth stage of mind-citta, called ekagra, is concentration. At this stage, chitta is purified from the admixture of the rajas element and becomes a perfect manifestation of sattva. As a result, a prolonged concentration of the mind-chitta on a certain object appears, which makes it possible to reveal its true nature and prepare the ground for the complete cessation of all mental modifications. However, in this state, the mind-citta continues to think or reflect on some object, so that even here the mental processes do not stop completely. At the last stage, all mental activity ceases, including even the concentration characteristic of the previous stage. Here, any change in mental states and processes completely ceases, and the mind-chitta remains in its original unchanged state of equanimity and calm.

The last two stages lead to yoga because they manifest the sattva element in the mind to the highest degree and thereby contribute to the ultimate goal of liberation. Actually ekagra, or a firmly established state of concentration is called samprajnata yoga, that is, the ecstasy of contemplation, in which a clear and distinct object awareness reflections. This condition is also called samapatti, or samprajnata samadhi, because the mind-citta in this state is completely invested in the object and takes the form of the object itself. Similarly, the state of niruddha (cessation) is called asamprajnata yoga, or asamprajnata samadhi, because modifications of the mind-citta in this state cease, nothing is known and nothing is thought. This is the state of ecstasy in which all mental experiences cease, objects do not appear to us and no disturbance occurs on the tranquil surface of the mind.

Both of these types of samadhi are known collectively as samadhi yoga, or the cessation of mental modifications because they promote self-knowledge.

There are two main types of yoga, or samadhi, - samprajnata And asamprajnata. Samprajnata Samadhi, in turn, is divided into four types according to the different objects of meditation. When the mind-chitta concentrates on any real physical object of the external world, for example an image of a god or goddess, then such concentration is called Savitarka. Having found out the nature of this object, it is necessary to focus on thin objects or subtle essences of physical elements (tanmatra). Concentration the mind on these objects is called savichapa samadhi. Third type samprajnata involves addressing some other more subtle objects, such as the senses, and concentrating the mind-citta on them until their real nature appears in what is called sananda samadhi. The last type of samprajnata samadhi is called sasmita, since the object related to it is asmita- ego, with whom I usually identifies himself. Reaching this stage of concentration allows one to realize the true nature of the ego. But it also sheds some light on what I generally almost no different from ego 9.

So, the mind-chitta comprehends the nature of various objects inside and outside the body, gradually renouncing them, until it is completely freed from the thought of any objects and reaches asamprajnata samadhi, that is, yoga predominantly. It puts an end to all mental modifications, and we are no longer associated with any object. This stage of yoga is the last, because when it is achieved, the entire world of objects ceases to exert its effect on the yogi and cease to exist for him.

While in this state, I abides in his own essence as pure consciousness, enjoying the tranquil contemplation of a separate self-luminous existence. When this state occurs, the ultimate goal of life is achieved, namely: liberation, freedom from all torment and suffering. All of life is a search for peace and tranquility, as well as the means to achieve them. Yoga is one of the spiritual paths leading to the desired goal of complete deliverance from all misfortunes through the awareness of difference myself from body, mind and individual ego. But this ultimate goal cannot be achieved by everyone at once. Even if I could immediately achieve the state of yoga and thereby be freed from suffering, then the possibility of their subsequent return would remain, for all the impressions and tendencies of the mind-citta as a result of its past and present actions are preserved. It takes long and earnest effort to hold fast in the state of yoga and destroy the influences of various types of past and present karmas. For this purpose, it is necessary to diligently and carefully perform all yoga rituals for a long time. The following section will explain the various stages in the practice of yoga.

2. Eightfold Remedies of Yoga 10

As we have already said, a person cannot understand spiritual truths as long as his mind is clogged and his intellect is corrupted by malicious thoughts. Only to a pure heart and a clear head does the true spirit directly reveal itself. Samkhya Yoga philosophers argue that liberation must be achieved through spiritual penetration (prajna) into reality I as a pure immortal spirit, completely distinct from body and mind. But spiritual penetration can only be achieved when the mind is cleared of all impurities and remains completely calm and clear. For cleansing And enlightenment citta Yoga gives us eight remedies: 1) pit- abstinence, 2) niyama- culture, 3) asana- position, 4) pranayama- breathing control, 5) pratyahara- removal of feelings, 6) dharana- attention, 7) dhyana- contemplation and 8) samadhi- concentration. They are known as yoga aids. When these means are regularly put into practice with reverence and dispassion, they lead to the attainment of both samprajnata and asamprajnata yoga.

The first rule of yoga is: a) ahimse- refraining from causing any harm to any kind of life, b) c satye- truthfulness in thoughts and speech, c) c asteye- non-theft, d) in brahmacharya- control over sensual desires and passions and e) in aparigraha- non-acceptance, rejection of unnecessary gifts. Although these types of practical behavior, apparently, should be so well known that they do not require detailed explanations. Nevertheless, in yoga they are explained in great detail, and it is emphasized that the yogi must strictly observe all its instructions, down to the smallest detail. The reason for this is obvious. It is a psychological law that a healthy mind resides in a healthy body, and that neither mind nor body can be healthy in a person who does not control his passions and sexual impulses. A person cannot concentrate his attention on any object when his mind is distracted by sinful, criminal and other evil intentions. This explains the need for the yogi to completely abstain from all evil actions and aspirations if he desires to know myself in a state of samadhi - concentration.

The second discipline (penance) of yoga is niyama, culture. Its essence lies in cultivating the following positive skills or habits: a) shaucha, that is, cleansing the body by washing and eating clean food (the so-called bahya- external purification), as well as purification of the mind through the cultivation of good emotions and feelings (such as friendliness, goodwill, cheerfulness) in order to do good to other people, regardless of their vices (this is called abhyantara, that is, internal cleansing); b) Santosha- the habit of being content with what comes naturally, without unnecessary effort; V) tapas- mortification of the flesh, which consists of the habit of enduring cold, heat, etc. and observance of ascetic vows; G) svadhyaya- the habit of regularly reading religious books and, finally, d) isvaro-pranidhana- thinking about God and humility before him.

Asana is a discipline of the body, which consists of the ability to occupy stable and comfortable positions. There are different types of asanas - padmasana, virasana, bhadrasana etc. They can only be studied properly under the guidance of experts. Discipline of the body is as necessary to achieve concentration as discipline of the mind. If the body is not completely free from disease and other harmful influences, then it is very difficult to achieve concentration. This means that yoga establishes detailed rules for maintaining the health of the body and makes it a convenient means of concentrating thoughts. The yoga system prescribes a number of rules to preserve vital energy, strengthen and cleanse the body and mind. Asanas, the body positions recommended in the yoga system, are effective methods by which the body can be partially protected from disease and all its members, especially the nervous system, can be properly controlled, which will also prevent disturbances in the functioning of the mind.

Pranayama is the regulation of breathing. It consists of stopping the respiratory processes or after exhalation (rechaka), or after inhalation (puraka), or simply by holding your vital breath (kumbhakas). The details of this process should be studied by a specialist. Breathing exercises are useful for strengthening the heart and improving its activity, which is recognized by doctors (for patients with a weak heart, they recommend walking, climbing, etc. in certain doses). Yoga goes further and prescribes breath control to focus the mind because it promotes stability of the body and mind. As long as breathing continues, the mind also experiences vibrations and notices the inhalation and exhalation of air. When breathing stops, the mind comes to a state of undisturbed concentration. By practicing breath control, the yogi can suspend the breath for a long time and thereby prolong the state of concentration.

Pratyahara consists of withdrawing the senses from their respective external objects and keeping them under the control of the mind. When the senses are effectively controlled by the mind, they are not guided by the corresponding natural objects, but by the mind itself. Therefore, in such a state, the mind is not subject to the actions of visual images and sounds penetrating through the eyes and ears, but subjugates these senses and makes it see and hear its own objects. It is very difficult to achieve such a state, but it is possible. This requires a strong will and long practice in achieving mastery over your senses. The above five means of achieving liberation are abstinence (pit), culture (niyama), body position (asana), breathing control (pranayama) and removal of feelings (pratyahara)- are considered external assistants of yoga. Compared to them, the other three remedies should be considered internal (antaranga-sadhana), because they directly relate to some kind of yoga; this is attention (dharana), contemplation (dhyana) and concentration (samadhi).

Dharana - attention - is a discipline of the mind consisting of concentration, fixation of the mind-chitta on the desired object. The object in the sphere of attention can be part of the body (navel, bridge of the nose, etc.) or external (moon, images of gods, etc.). The ability to firmly concentrate attention on some object is a test of fitness for moving to the next, higher stage of yoga.

Dhyana - meditation - the next stage of yoga. It means a uniform flow of thought around and even around the object of attention. This is the quiet contemplation of an object without any interruption or disturbance. As a result, we get a clear and distinct representation of the object and, above all, its parts and aspects. But by long meditation the mind can develop a partial representation of an object into a complete and vivid representation of it. Thus, contemplation reveals the reality of the object in question to the yogi's mind.

Samadhi - concentration - is the final step in the practice of yoga. At this stage the mind is so deeply absorbed in the object of contemplation that it loses itself in the object and has no idea of ​​itself. In the state of contemplation, the act and object of thought remain distinct and independent states of consciousness. In a state of concentration, the act of thinking does not differ from awareness, but takes the form of an object and loses itself. Thus, only the object of thought remains clearly in the mind, and we do not even know whether the process of thinking also occurs there. It should be noted here that concentration (samadhi) as a means is different from yoga (samadhi), which was previously defined as “the restraining principle of the mind” (chitta-vritti-nirodha). The first is only means achieving the latter, which is his purpose. Long-term use of the first entails the second.

These last three steps in yoga practice are called internal means. (antaranga sadhana). They must have the same object, which must first of all come into the sphere of attention, then be subject to consideration and, finally, be the subject of concentration. Combined in this way they constitute sanyama, very necessary for achieving samadhi yoga.

It is said that through the practical application of yoga in its various stages, the yogi acquires special strength. Thus, yogis can tame all animals, including even wild animals; get any thing with a simple desire; know directly the past, present and future; give rise to supernatural visions, sounds and smells and see the subtlest entities, angels and gods. They can also see through closed doors, pass through stone walls, turn invisible, appear in different places at the same time, etc. But at the same time, the yoga system calls on all religiously minded people not to use yoga for these purposes; yoga serves to achieve liberation. A yogi should not succumb to the temptation of acquiring supernatural powers. He must overcome this temptation and move forward until he comes to the end of the journey, namely, liberation 11.

IV. THE PLACE OF GOD IN THE YOGA SYSTEM 12

Unlike Samkhya, the yoga system is theistic. It recognizes the existence of God both theoretically and practically. Patanjali himself, when solving any theoretical problems of philosophy, does not feel the need for God. For him, God has a more practical than theoretical meaning. He believes that the worship of God should be given great practical importance, since it forms part of the practice of yoga and is one one of the means of final achievement of samadhi yoga is concentration, or “restraint of the mind.” Subsequent commentators and interpreters of yoga also showed theoretical interest in the question of the existence of God, discussing more fully such speculative problems as the nature of God and evidence of his existence. Thus, the yogi system shows both theoretical and practical interest in the existence of God.

According to yoga, God is the supreme being, standing above all individual I and free from all defects. God is a perfect, eternal, all-pervading, omnipotent and omniscient being. All individual I are more or less susceptible to misfortune (klesha), born of ignorance, selfishness, desire, aversion and fear of death. They all do one thing or another (karma)- good, bad or indifferent - and reap the fruits of their labors accordingly (vipaka). They are also influenced by hidden impressions from past experiences. (ashaya). Even if freed I was freed from all these difficulties, it cannot be said that it will continue to be free from them. God and only God forever free from any defects. God is a perfect, immortal spirit who is always free from misfortunes and their consequences, as well as from the impressions of these misfortunes (klesha-karma-vipaka-ashayair aparamrishtah). He has a perfect nature, the like of which does not exist. Moreover, he has the most complete knowledge of all facts and is thus able to support the existence of the whole world by his mere desire or thought. God is the supreme ruler of the world, possessing infinite knowledge, unlimited power, the wisest desires, distinguishing him from all others I.

The existence of God is proven using the following arguments. The Vedas, Upanishads and other important scriptures speak of the existence of God as the supreme I, which is also the primary reality and ultimate goal of the world. Thus, as scripture testifies, God exists.

According to the law of continuity, everything with a degree must have a lower and a higher limits. There are, for example, different quantities - large and small. The atom is the smallest quantity, while akasha or space is the greatest quantity. Likewise, there are different degrees of knowledge and power. Therefore there must be a being with perfect knowledge and perfect power. Such a supreme being, the highest principle, is God. There can be no I, which in terms of knowledge and power could be equated to God, because in this case there would be a conflict between them, a clash of their desires and goals, which would lead to chaos in the universe.

The world is created as a result of the union of purusha with prakriti and their mutual dissolution until the moment of separation. Purusha and prakriti are independent principles, which cannot be said to be naturally connected or united. Likewise, they are not by their nature separated, otherwise their relationship would remain inexplicable. Therefore there must be some intelligent cause which brings about their union and separation in accordance with invisible moral merits (adrishta) individual I. Not a single individual I cannot control or direct his own virtues or destiny because he does not have a clear understanding of them. Therefore, there must be a perfect and omnipotent being who causes the union or separation of purusha and prakriti according to whether the merits of the individual require I creation or destruction of the world. This being is God, without whose guidance prakriti cannot create precisely such a structure of the universe that corresponds to moral education and the final liberation of individual I.

Worship of God is not only part of the practical behavior of a yogi, but serves as one of the best means of achieving samadhi yoga, that is, concentration and control of the mind. This is explained by the fact that God is not only an object of thought or contemplation, like other objects, but also the supreme ruler who mercifully removes sins and vices from the lives of believers and makes it easier for them to achieve yoga. Anyone who sincerely believes in God and worships him cannot help but think about him constantly and see him in all manifestations of life. On such a devoted person God bestows his special favor - purity of heart and enlightenment of intellect. God removes from the path of the believer all serious hindrances and obstacles, such as delusions of the mind, and places him in the most favorable conditions for achieving yoga. But while the grace of God can work miracles in our lives, we, on our part, must become worthy of it through love and mercy, truthfulness and purity, constant reflection and complete submission to God.

V. CONCLUSION

To an unkind critic, yoga may seem less like a system of philosophy and more like a school of mysticism and magic. Understanding Yoga Philosophy I as a transcendental subject, completely different from body, mind and ego, very far from common sense and ordinary psychological understanding I. Compared to this, the spiritualistic understanding I in the yoga system can be considered as incomprehensible and mystical. Likewise, the supernormal forces associated with the various stages of yoga practice can hardly be reconciled with the known laws of physics and psychology. All this may seem reminiscent of some kind of primitive religion or magic.

However, it should be noted that the teaching of yoga about self-knowledge I has a solid basis in Samkhya metaphysics which grounds reality I as the metaphysical and eternal beginning of consciousness. If one believes in a transcendental spirit, one cannot help but admit that there are deeper stages of consciousness than the empirical, as well as wider possibilities and higher potencies than the physical or those related to the senses. Glimpses of this deeper reality of our individual lives have dawned not only on the prophets and saints of various countries, but also on such great philosophers as Plato and Aristotle, Spinoza and Leibniz, Kant and Hegel. The Society for Psychical Research and the modern school of psychoanalysis have made a great contribution to the knowledge of the dark sides of mental life, hidden from ordinary eyes; Yoga goes even further in this regard, formulating some practical methods of purification and self-control for a person to realize the true myself. Since this system recognizes the existence of God, it is superior to Samkhya both from the theoretical and practical points of view, as well as from the point of view of transmitting this belief to its followers. For a correct assessment of this philosophy, it is necessary to have a benevolent understanding of it and a sincere desire to realize and realize its truths. “I am confident,” writes Miss Koster, assessing this system, “that behind the decorated curtain of our existence, which for so many represents the boundary of this life, there is an area available for study by those who are determined” 13.

Philosophy is the love of wisdom. The philosophy of Yoga is altruism and love for nature.

The philosophy of yoga in a broad sense can be called the ancient teaching about the spiritual self-improvement of man, which came to us from the Aryan civilization and developed into the form known today in the religious and philosophical schools of ancient and medieval India, which for almost two millennia has been a model of wisdom for many admirers of Indian spirituality leading a person to the highest possible goal of his life.

Yoga is one of the darshanas, the six orthodox (following the spiritual tradition of the Vedas) philosophical schools of India. Proceeding directly to the philosophy of classical yoga, we will highlight two fundamental categories that contain all being, everything that exists. These are Purusha and Prakriti - spiritual and material substances.

Classical yoga, also called “royal yoga” (“raja yoga”), was formulated by Patanjali around the 2nd century. BC. As follows from the Yoga Sutra, a work consisting of 195 short aphorisms (“sutras”), Patanjali taught dualistic, dualistic metaphysics. It contrasts the Spirit, or “I” (Purusha), with Nature or Cosmos (Prakriti), considering them as two root causes of Reality independent of each other.

In the anthropology of yoga, the inner world of a person corresponds to the outer being. A person is considered as a microcosm, which in its structure is identical to the macrocosm external to him. Thus, man is also the result of the union of Purusha and Prakriti.

Unlike Prakriti, Purusha is not subject to change. Therefore, we can say that he is outside of time and space. Purusha is called the Spectator, observing the unfolding picture of change in matter.

Buddhi Mahat is the stage of development of Prakriti and the basis of the universe. In it, as a stage in the evolution of matter, individual Buddhi is formed, which is the ideal basis for the human psyche. Subsequently, the remaining elements of the microcosm are formed. These are the organs of perception - hearing, vision, touch, taste, smell; organs of action - arms, legs, organs of excretion and reproduction, organ of speech; the organ of the mind is the mind (manas). So, in fact, everything that we are used to identifying with ourselves, with our self - the physical body, memory, emotions, intellect, mental images, etc. - refers to matter and is potentially contained in the individual Buddhi.

Purusha in man is pure consciousness, his Spirit, his true Self. Yoga presupposes the existence of many “small parts” of Purusha, individual souls that manifest through different beings in Prakriti. Our true Self is eternal and unchanging. It is conscious and directs all processes in the sphere of Prakriti. The model of the union of Purusha and Prakriti in a person is often compared to two people lost in the forest. One of whom is without legs (Purusha), and the other is blind (Prakriti). It is clear that by uniting, they will be able to begin to get out of the forest. Purusha, interacting with Prakriti, fills a person’s individual buddhi, the matrix of all his mental phenomena, with the ability to self-awareness. Therefore, we, not knowing about Purusha, are aware of ourselves in our mental activity.

A person in his ordinary state does not know his true Self and identifies himself at best with his individual buddhi. But the ability of Buddhi to realize itself is no more than an illusion, because only Purusha has true consciousness. We always say to ourselves: “I walk, I feel, I think,” etc., thereby limiting our existence to the framework of Prakriti.

Yoga is a set of physical and spiritual practices aimed at human development at all levels: mental, spiritual and physical.

Yoga philosophy has the following properties:

It is spiritual, i.e. is focused on the disclosure and comprehension of being through the awareness of the independent and self-existent Spirit of the individual.

Ethical, i.e. contains virtues, the main one of which is non-violence.

Emotional, i.e. teaches about love, kindness and other beneficial qualities.

It is practical, i.e. it offers ways to control the body.

Intellectual, i.e. its methods involve the use of the powers of reason, and its main provisions are substantiated by philosophical texts.

Yoga can be seen as a way to free consciousness from false identification with a specific physical shell. In other words, it is the opening of spiritual vision that returns the Self to its true nature. It can also be said that yoga destroys the existential suffering of the mind, which is born due to the harmful habit of identifying oneself as an individual, separate from the rest of the world.

Experienced masters say that the entire “Yoga Sutra” and commentaries to it were written with the aim of illuminating the teaching about the meaning of human existence, the theory of liberation.

We already know that liberation means the separation of spirit from matter (Purusha from Prakriti). Why is it needed? The fact is that people in their usual state limit their own existence to the framework of Prakriti. It is because of this that all our suffering occurs. We begin to strive for a constant feeling of affection and satisfaction, for pleasures that always end. It is important to understand that the stronger the satisfaction, the greater the disappointment in the future, and the desire for forms of Prakriti determines the existence of karma.

Yoga is aimed at the comprehensive development of a person, and, mainly, at the growth of consciousness and the internal culture of any person.

In the sixth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita (translated from Sanskrit as “Song of God”), the most authoritative source on the philosophy of yoga, God Krishna explains to his disciple Arjuna the meaning of yoga as liberation from suffering and grief: “When the flow of thoughts is curbed, the mind remains only in atman, Partha, when the husband has calmed desires, he is then called a “yogin.” When a yogi, having curbed thought, strengthens himself in yoga, he is like a candle whose flame does not waver in a place without wind. Where thought is stopped by exercise in yoga , freezes, where in the atman the one who contemplates the atman finds joy in the atman, - for there he cognizes that happiness that is beyond the feelings, one thought, accessible, beyond, standing in which, he will not deviate from the truth - the one who stays there will not be embarrassed by even the most difficult sorrow; after all, having achieved that goal, he does not imagine something higher, something better to meet.

This state is yoga, which opens the shackles of sorrows." Like a well-polished diamond, each of the faces of which reflects one or another ray of light, so the word "yoga" reflects with each face one or another shade of meaning, revealing different sides of the entire range of human aspirations to achieve happiness, love and freedom. In the Bhagavad Gita there is another explanation of the term yoga, where the emphasis is on Karma Yoga (yoga of action): “Only be directed towards action, but turn away from its fruit; Let the fruits not captivate you, but do not be shackled by inaction. Free from attachments, steadfast in yoga, performing deeds, balancing failure with success: this evenness is called yoga." Krishna also calls wisdom in work or the ability to live in work, harmony and moderation as yoga: "He who overeats is not a yogi, and he is not who does not eat at all, and not the one who sleeps beyond measure, and not the one who deprives himself of sleep. Be moderate in food, in rest, be moderate in actions, in sleep and in vigil - this is how you will find sorrow-relieving yoga." In the Katha Upanishad, yoga is explained as follows: "When the senses are calm, when the mind is at peace, when the intellect does not waver, then, as the sages say, the highest level has been reached. This constant control of the senses and mind is called yoga. He who achieves it is freed from delusions."

Yoga is a method, a system of exercises for calming a restless mind and directing energy into constructive channels. Just as a hydroelectric power station on a mighty river, which, with a wisely constructed dam and canals, represents a huge supply of water, saving from drought and famine and generating electricity for the life of cities and industry, so the mind, when under control, accumulates energy from the Cosmic River and generates enormous strength for all-round human growth.

Calming a person's mind is as difficult as stopping a mountain river.

Through the practical application of yoga in its various stages, the yogi acquires special strength. Like proponents of Samkhya and other systems of Indian philosophy, the founder of yoga, Patanjali, argues that liberation must be achieved through direct knowledge of the difference between the Self and the physical world, including our body, mind and personality. But this is only possible if we can suppress and limit the functions of the body and senses, mind-manas and intellect, and finally, our individuality (that is, the empirical, personal self) And at the same time have self-awareness, the experience of the transcendental spirit (purusha) . This would convince us that the Self is above the mind-body complex, above the senses and intellect, and above the suffering or joy of the individual - the Self. The self, as will be shown, must stand above all physical reality with its spatio-temporal and cause-effect relationships.

This is the awareness of the Self as a free, immortal spirit, standing outside of evil and suffering, death and destruction. In other words, this is the achievement of a state of freedom from all suffering and unhappiness - liberation. The yoga system shows a practically feasible path of self-development to all those who follow the dictates of the spirit and who sincerely strive to follow it. The Samkhya system pays more attention to the knowledge of the difference between the Self and the rest of the world as a means of achieving liberation. But she does not forget to recommend such practical methods of achieving liberation as study, meditation and constant concentration on the truth. Yoga philosophy focuses on practical methods of purification and concentration to understand the difference between the Self and the body and mind and at the same time to achieve liberation.

However, it should be noted that the teaching of yoga on self-knowledge of the Self has a solid basis in the metaphysics of Samkhya, which substantiates the reality of the Self as a metaphysical and eternal principle of consciousness. If one believes in a transcendental spirit, one cannot help but admit that there are deeper stages of consciousness than the empirical, as well as wider possibilities and higher potencies than the physical or those related to the senses. Glimpses of this deeper reality of our individual lives have dawned not only on prophets and saints, but also on such great philosophers as Plato and Aristotle, Spinoza and Leibniz, Kant and Hegel. Physical research and the modern school of psychoanalysis have made a great contribution to the field of knowledge of the dark sides of mental life, hidden from the ordinary eye. Yoga goes even further in this regard by formulating some practical methods of purification and self-control for realizing the true self of a person. For a correct assessment of this philosophy, it is necessary to have a benevolent understanding of it and a sincere desire to realize and realize its truths...

2. Ancient Indian philosophy of Vedanta. (Vedanta. Vaisheshika. Jainism. Buddhism. Lokayata. Yoga)

Indian culture is one of the most ancient in the history of human civilization. Within its framework, an original philosophy was created that had a great influence on the work of the greatest thinkers of modern and contemporary times both in India itself and beyond its borders, in particular in Western Europe. In the history of ancient Indian philosophy, three periods are usually distinguished: Vedic (1st half of the 1st millennium BC), epic (2nd half of the 1st millennium BC) and classical (from the 1st millennium AD). e.). During the Vedic period, the texts of the Vedas were created, which set out the mythological worldview of the tribal society. The final stage in the evolution of the Vedas is considered to be the Upanishads, which were a transitional form from mythology to philosophy in ancient Indian society.

During the era of transition from clan society to early class society, the formation of various schools and directions of ancient Indian philosophy took place. Depending on their attitude to the Vedas, philosophical schools are divided into orthodox (Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika), which recognize the authority of the Vedas, and heterodox (Jainism, Buddhism, Charvaka Lokayata), which reject the authority of the Vedas.

Vedanta philosophy.

The philosophical system directly based on the Vedas is Vedanta (“completion of the Vedas”), which served as the theoretical basis for Brahmanism. For this philosophy, the speculative part of the Vedic complex (Upanishads) is the same as for Christian philosophy the New Testament. From the Upanishads she borrows, first of all, the doctrine of Brahman-Atman as an absolute substance, the basis of all things.

According to Vedanta, the absolute spiritual essence of the world is Brahman - the cause of all things. The soul (jiva), which is eternal, beginningless and indestructible, is considered identical with Brahman. “The eternity of this soul is understood from the sacred texts, since the unbornness and constancy of nature are characteristic of the unchangeable Brahman, who can act as a Brahman and as an individual soul.” The soul is consciousness considered as an eternally existing, self-evident reality. By its internal nature it is alien to any kind of activity. At the level of the empirical world, there are many souls. As long as the soul is in the body-mind-sense system, it remains only a likeness, an image of Brahman, therefore it is multiple, not one and the same with Brahman.

The world of phenomena, according to this teaching, which we perceive through the senses, is an appearance caused by the influence of illusions (Maya) with their three ingredients of quality (gumma). The reason for appearances lies in ignorance (avidya). The way out of the cycle of births lies in knowledge, knowledge (vidya), on the basis of which one realizes that the world is a complete deception, and Brahman-Atman (soul) has the true reality. The path to achieving this knowledge is to adhere to a moral code, primarily meditation. By the latter is meant concentrated reflection on the hidden problems of the Upanishads. At the same time, the student must obediently follow the teacher initiated into the wisdom of Vedanta. He must practice constant reflection on its truth until he achieves direct and, moreover, constant contemplation of the truth. According to Vedanta, the soul bound to its body is not free, it craves sensual pleasures and experiences a long series of reincarnations. Victory over ignorance, which enslaves the soul, is achieved by studying Vedanta.

Philosophy of Jainism.

Mahavira Vardhama (VI century BC) is considered the founder of the Jain religious and philosophical teachings. This teaching is dualistic, since its representatives, the Jains, distinguish two parts of existence - the inanimate (ajiva) and the living (jiva). The inanimate includes matter consisting of atoms, time, and the environment, and the living is identified with the animate. Jiva is eternal and imperishable, but it breaks up into many souls clothed in a variety of material shells, which pass from one body to another (samsara). However, in all living things there is one soul and hence the vow of ahimsa follows.

The complete and final separation of jiva and ajiva is moksha, and their complete union is karma. Jains distinguished eight karmas. Evil karmas negatively affect the main properties of the soul, and good karmas keep the soul in the cycle of rebirth. When a person gradually gets rid of both karmas, he will be freed from the bonds of samsara. To do this, correct behavior, knowledge and faith are required during life.

A characteristic feature of the Jainism system is the careful development of rules and external forms of ascetic behavior. Such rules include ahinsa, i.e. no harm to living things. The Jain understanding of ahinsa follows logically from his metaphysical theory of the potential equality of all souls and the recognition of the principle of reversibility. According to this principle, people should treat others as they would like to be treated.

The theory of knowledge is quite developed among the Jains. They distinguish between “shruti” - authoritarian knowledge and “mati”, which involves memory, recognition and inference. “Super-direct knowledge” differs from direct knowledge, when the soul (jiva) does not rely on either the senses or the mind. Absolute knowledge is available only to jinn - liberated souls.

An integral part of Jain teaching is the idea of ​​an eternal cosmos in which there are several worlds located one above the other. The two lower ones are inhabited by demons who torment the souls of sinners, the middle world is our earth, the gods live in the higher world, and the genies live in the highest world. It is they who the Jains worship, denying the existence of God.

Philosophy of Buddhism.

The philosophy of Buddhism developed from the teachings of Siddharha Gautama (c. 583-483 BC), later called Buddha. This religious and philosophical teaching was contemplative in nature and was a natural result of simple observation. The central place in it is occupied by the idea of ​​universal variability, as well as universal interconnection and interdependence. The question of the existence of the external world has been eliminated, since there is no possibility of dividing the internal world and the external world. The external material world is an integral part of human mental life. Therefore, only the person who sees the sun is analyzed, and not the person who reflects the sun.

The Buddhist teaching about existence does not require for its explanation either a creator god or freely creating consciousness and will. Being is seen as the dynamic existence of instantaneous elements (dharmas), which are in continuous causal, and, therefore, “tormenting” connection. Each element is a unity of objective and subjective. The question naturally arises: how to create morality on this basis, addressed to any suffering person? Avoiding such extremes as asceticism and an excessive emotional and sensual attitude to life, Buddha finds his own “middle path.” The teaching about the path of moral salvation is presented by him in the publicly accessible language of everyday images and concepts.

In Buddhist philosophy, gods and people are not the creators of the universe, but are themselves subject to the action of the impersonal world order, the law of karma, moral consequences for past virtues or sinful acts. Here not only the immortality of the soul is denied, but also its very existence. It, like the body, is a process of instantaneous interaction between the finite and changeable elements of existence - dharmas. Everything that exists is the movement of dharmas, their instantaneous interaction. The only means of comprehending the absolute is Mahayanist philosophy, which is a development of Buddhism and proclaims the intuition of saints. Its representatives believed that the Universe was spiritual and governed by moral laws.

At the center of this teaching are the “four noble truths.” The first truth is that human existence is inextricably linked with suffering. Birth, illness, old age, death, inability to achieve what you want, etc. lead to suffering. According to the second truth, the cause of suffering is thirst, leading through joys and passions to rebirth, a person’s attachment to life, the satisfaction of his sensual passions. The elimination of the causes of suffering lies in the elimination of this thirst - this is the third truth. And finally, as the fourth truth, the path to the elimination of suffering is proclaimed. Achieving complete equanimity and indifference to everything is a state of nirvana, a state of superhuman pleasure.

The Noble Eightfold Path is as follows: right judgment, right decision, right speech, right living, right aspiration, right attention and right concentration. The prescription for it identifies three main stages: knowledge, behavior and concentration, which reveal the main content of non-violence in Buddhist ethics. Improving knowledge is impossible without morality, therefore the moral ideal of Buddhism appears as absolute non-harm to others.

Thus, the Eightfold Path of the Buddha included a holistic way of life in which the unity of knowledge, morality and behavior was to culminate in the purification of man in the light of truth.

Philosophy of Lokayata.

The materialist line in ancient Indian philosophy was represented primarily by the teachings of the Lokayati-Charvakas. Lokayata meant the philosophy of this world, the philosophy of the people, since it reflected the people's worldview. Brihaspati is considered the founder of this teaching. The Lokayatikas criticized the worldview of the Vedas, denied life after death, the law of karma and samsara, and rejected the existence of God.

They reduced everything that exists to four principles (“mahabhuta”): earth, water, air and fire. Everything in the world consists of the combination of mahabhutas. When they unite, they form a living body, sensory organs, and on their basis consciousness arises.

Denying the existence of an afterlife, the Lokayats spoke about the need to use real life. “As long as you live,” one text states, “live joyfully, for no one can escape death. When the body is burned and turns into ashes, the reverse transformation will never take place.” They saw the meaning of life in happiness, and happiness was understood primarily as pleasure. Therefore, in their opinion, a person should not give up the pleasures delivered by sensual things.

Lokayatikas denied supernatural knowledge, authorities and reason as a source of knowledge, and derived all knowledge from the senses, from sensations. It is important to note that the originality of the provisions of Indian materialism is more reflected in negative judgments than in positive ones. This was due to the fact that natural science, to which representatives of this philosophy appealed, was still in its infancy.

Yoga philosophy.

Classical yoga has ancient Vedic roots, the founder of which was Patanjali (2nd century BC). All eight parts of this philosophy (yama - abstinence, niyama - self-discipline, posture - sitting in a pose, pranayama - regulation of breathing, pratyahara - transformation of the activity of the senses, dharana - concentration, dhyana - meditation and samadhi - cessation of the activity of consciousness) go back to elements of yogic practice contained in a number of Upanishads.

Yoga is close to the Samkhya philosophy, from which it takes many provisions, including the doctrine of the dualism of prakriti and purusha, the system of twenty-five principles, etc. In the yoga system, faith in God is considered as an element of the theoretical worldview and as a condition for successful practical activity aimed at liberation from fetters karma and samsara. Ishvara is recognized as an absolute being.

In yoga, methods have been developed to “bridle thoughts,” distract thoughts from all objects of the sensory world and concentrate such “purified” thoughts in themselves. In a state of such a deep trance, a person realizes, according to its representatives, the difference between his “I” and the world, and is freed from it. This purpose of concentrating thoughts is served by various postures and positions of the body, breathing control, etc. Since yoga is focused on specific mental issues, the central category is Chita, which takes the form of all potential mental states. They are not directly observable, but they all become known and are called klesha. The rules of yoga contain a number of rational, empirically tested prescriptions related to respiratory hygiene, diet, etc. The system of regulations also includes the requirement to worship God.