Duel in Russia: rules and code. "To the barrier!" Features and traditions of Russian dueling Who abolished duels

“How many fights have we seen for a just cause? Otherwise, everything is for actresses, for cards, for horses or for a portion of ice cream,” wrote Alexander Bestuzhev-Marlinsky in the story “Test.” “Kultura.RF” recalls how the tradition of a duel appeared in Russia and which Russian writers had to defend their honor in a duel.

HISTORY OF THE DUEL

The duel ritual originates in Italy. Either the hot sun heated the blood of the Italians, or the southern temperament did not give rest - from the 14th century, local nobles began to look for a reason for a mortal duel in conflicts. This is how “fighting in the bushes” appeared, when opponents went to a deserted place and fought with the weapons that were at hand. A century later, the fashion for dueling spread across the Italian-French border and spread throughout Europe. “Dueling fever” reached Russia only during the time of Peter I.

For the first time, foreigners, Russian service officers from a “foreign” regiment, found themselves at the barrier in Russia in 1666. Half a century later, fights were banned. One of the chapters of Peter’s Military Regulations of 1715 provided for deprivation of ranks and even confiscation of property for just one challenge to a duel, and participants in the duel faced the death penalty.

Catherine II issued the “Manifesto on Duels,” which equated murder in a duel to a criminal offense; the instigators of the duels were exiled to Siberia for life. But then the fashion for duels was just flaring up, and in the 19th century, when European passions began to wane, it seemed that there was not a day in Russia without a mortal duel.

In the West, the Russian duel was called “barbarism.” In Russia, preference was given not to edged weapons, but to pistols, and they shot not, as in Europe, from thirty steps, but almost point-blank - from ten. In 1894, Alexander III placed duels under the control of officer courts, and at the beginning of the twentieth century, dueling codes appeared in Russia.

DUEL CODE

There were several dueling codes in Russia, and one of the most famous was the Code of Count Vasily Durasov. The sets of all the rules were similar: the duelist could not suffer from mental illness, he had to firmly hold the weapon and fight. Only opponents of equal status could take part in the duel, and the reason for it was the insulted honor of the opponent himself or the lady. There were no women's duels in Russia, although several cases were known in Europe.

A challenge to a duel followed the insult immediately: a demand for an apology, a written challenge, or a visit from seconds. They protected the duelists from direct communication, prepared the duel itself and acted as witnesses. Being late for a duel by more than 15 minutes was considered avoiding battle, and therefore a loss of honor.

Initially, duelists used edged weapons: sword, saber or rapier. In the 18th century, dueling pistols began to be used more often, which, being absolutely identical, equalized the chances of both opponents to win. They shot in different ways, for example, over the shoulder, standing with their backs to each other (“stationary blind duel”); with one bullet for two; putting a gun to his forehead; "Blow in the barrel."

They shot in turn or simultaneously, on the spot or approaching each other, almost point-blank, from three steps and through a scarf, holding it together with their left hands. The poet and Decembrist Kondraty Ryleev took part in such a desperate fight, defending his sister’s honor. He fought with Prince Konstantin Shakhovsky and was wounded, but not fatally.

DUEL OF LITERATORS

The death of one of the opponents was not a necessary outcome of the duel. Thus, Alexander Pushkin had 29 calls on his account. In most cases, the poet’s friends came to an agreement with the police, and Pushkin was put under arrest for the duration of the fight. For example, the reason for the duel between Pushkin and his lyceum friend Wilhelm Küchelbecker was the former’s epigram: “I overate at dinner, / And Yakov locked the door by mistake - / So it was for me, my friends, / Both Küchelbecker and sick.” The duel ended with a miss by both poets.

In 1822, Pushkin and Lieutenant Colonel Sergei Starov did not agree on musical preferences: the poet asked the orchestra to play a mazurka, and the military man asked him to play a quadrille. Starov perceived the situation as an insult to the entire regiment, and a duel took place - both opponents missed.

Maximilian Voloshin’s harmless joke on Nikolai Gumilev ended in a duel. Voloshin, together with the poetess Elizaveta Dmitrieva, conspired to publish several poems under the name Cherubina de Gabriak. Gumilev became interested in a non-existent lady and even tried to find out her address. Having learned that the mysterious Spanish woman did not exist, the poet became furious and challenged the joker to a duel. On the notorious Black River, two shots were heard: the angry Gumilyov missed, Voloshin fired into the air.

Two other Russian classics, Leo Tolstoy and Ivan Turgenev, also almost shot each other. While visiting Fet, Tolstoy accidentally insulted Turgenev's daughter Polina and spat in his direction. The fight did not take place only through the efforts of the writers' friends, but after that they did not speak to each other for 17 years.

Alexander Griboyedov was a participant in the “quadruple” duel, during which the seconds were also supposed to shoot after the duelists themselves.

The reason for the fight was a quarrel between the ballerina Avdotya Istomina and her admirer, cavalry guard Vasily Sheremetev. Griboyedov invited the ballerina to tea, and she ended up visiting Count Alexander Zavadsky, with whom Griboyedov was then living. Zavadsky himself was not averse to hitting on the “brilliant and airy” Istomina, so her visit to the count extremely offended Sheremetev. As a result, the offended cavalry guard was killed at the barrier.

Then seconds Griboyedov and cornet Alexander Yakubovich never shot, but a few years later Yakubovich said: “You won’t play the piano, Sasha!” - resumed the duel and shot the playwright in the hand.

“In 14th I went to the Caucasus. I fought a duel in Kislovodsk with lawyer K. After which I immediately felt that I was an extraordinary person, a hero and an adventurer - I volunteered for the war. He was an officer,” Mikhail Zoshchenko wrote in his autobiography.

In October 2002, George W. Bush and Saddam Hussein were asked to resolve their differences in a duel. Of course, this was not taken seriously. It's a pity. Look, hundreds of thousands of lives would have been saved. Alas! The times of fair fights have been relegated to the archives.

However, not everyone was delighted with the ancient tradition of duels. The wonderful Russian journalist A.S. Suvorin wrote: “How I seethed with indignation against this shameful and vile murder, which is called a duel. Is the outcome of a duel the judgment of God, and not an accident or the art of the shooter?

Let's try to answer this question.

XV century. Italy. The origins of duels

The classical duel in Western Europe originated in the late Middle Ages, around the 14th century. The birthplace of the duel was Italy, where street battles like those described in Romeo and Juliet often raged on the streets of cities. Young noble Italians increasingly chose to fight alone with weapons in their hands as a means of avenging imaginary and real grievances. In Italy, such fights were called fights of predators or fights in the bushes, because they usually fought to the death and in a secluded place, as a rule, in some kind of copse. The participants in the duel met in private, armed only with a sword and a daga (a dagger for the left hand) and engaged in a duel until one of them fell dead. The number of duels grew rapidly, and Church bans soon followed, finally formalized by the decisions of the Council of Trent. The Council in 1563, in order to completely banish from the Christian world the disgusting custom, introduced by the cunning of the devil in order to lead to the destruction of the soul through the bloody death of the body, determined the punishment for duelists as murder, and, moreover, excommunication from the church and deprivation of Christian burial. However, this had no effect. Moreover, the duels easily crossed the Alps and began their solemn procession across Europe

XVI-XVII century. Classic period. France. First dueling fever

French nobles and military men, who became acquainted with the duel during the Italian Wars (1484-1559), became grateful students of the Italians.

In France, the duel quickly became fashionable both in the capital and in the provinces. Participation in a fight began to be considered good form; for young people it became a kind of extreme sport, a way to attract attention, and popular entertainment! As a result, the duel quickly migrated from secluded places, as was customary in Italy, to the streets and squares of cities and to the halls of palaces, including the royal one. At first there were no clear dueling rules. The provisions of knightly treatises were valid only in theory, since in those days a military man or nobleman reading books was the exception rather than the rule. For them, as one of their contemporaries put it, the sword was the pen, the blood of their opponents was the ink, and their bodies were the paper. Therefore, an unwritten code gradually developed for the regulation of fights. Any nobleman who was insulted could challenge the offender to a duel. A challenge in defense of the honor of relatives and friends was also allowed. The challenge (cartel) could be made in writing or verbally, in person or through an intermediary. Since the 70s of the 16th century, they preferred to do without any special formalities, and several minutes could pass from the challenge to the duel. Moreover, such a duel, immediately following an insult and a challenge, was regarded by public opinion as more prestigious and noble.

The reason for the call could be the most insignificant. Quite quickly, a specific type of duel lovers appeared - fighters, looking everywhere for a reason to fight, loving to risk their own lives and send their opponents to the next world. Louis de Clermont de Bussy d'Amboise (quite a historical figure), glorified by Alexandre Dumas in the novel “The Countess de Monsoreau”, was just one of these. Once he got into a fight, arguing about the shape of a pattern on the curtains, and deliberately defended a position that was far from the truth, deliberately provoking his interlocutor. Often duels were caused by rivalry on the love front. Usually such a duel was an ordinary revenge, although arranged with due grace. Cartels were given to those who managed to achieve a profitable appointment, a prestigious award, or receive an inheritance. There were fights over the best place in the church, at a royal reception or ball, because of a dispute about the merits of horses and hunting dogs. The main rule of duels was simple: having received an insult, you can immediately send a challenge, but then the right to choose a weapon belongs to the enemy. However, there remained a loophole: in order to retain this right, the offended person provoked the offender to challenge. To do this, in response to the insult, he himself accused his interlocutor of lies and slander. According to the outstanding lawyer of the time, Etienne Pasquier, even lawyers did not invent as many tricks in trials as duelists did, so that the choice of weapon belonged to them. Refusal from the duel was impossible. Only people over 60 years old could refuse a duel without damage to their honor. The minimum age for participation in fights was determined to be 25 years old, but in reality they fought from 15-16. If a nobleman carries a sword, he must be able to defend his honor with its help. Illness and injury could also be considered a valid reason for refusing a fight. True, some theorists argued: if one of the opponents does not have an eye, the second must blindfold himself, if there is no limb, bandage the corresponding one to his body, etc. It was forbidden to challenge royalty to a duel - their lives belonged to the country. Fights between relatives and between lord and vassal were condemned. If the conflict was considered by the court, then it was no longer possible to resolve it with a duel. It was humiliation in the eyes of the world to demand a duel with a commoner. According to tradition, only friendly relations should arise between persons who fought a duel after the fight. Challenging a person who defeated you in a previous fight and left your life was like starting a duel with your own father. This was allowed only if the winner boasted of victory and humiliated the vanquished. Swords were used as weapons in French duels, sometimes supplemented with a daga in the left hand; less often, fights took place only with daggers or with two swords. They usually fought without chain mail and cuirasses, and often took off their outer clothing - camisoles and tunics, remaining in only shirts or with a bare torso. In this way, they got rid of clothing that restricted movement and at the same time demonstrated to the enemy the absence of hidden armor. Most often, duels of that period ended in the death or severe injury of one of their participants. It was bad form to spare the enemy, and surrender was humiliation. Rarely did anyone show nobility in allowing someone to pick up a weapon knocked out of their hands or get up from the ground after being wounded - more often they killed someone who had fallen to the ground and was disarmed. However, this behavior was largely explained by the heat of the battle itself, and not by cruelty. A quarrel between Ashon Muron, the nephew of one of the marshals of France, and the elderly captain Mathas occurred in 1559 while hunting in Fontainebleau. Muron was young, hot and impatient. He pulled out his sword and demanded to fight immediately. An experienced military man, Captain Matas not only knocked out the young man’s sword, but also lectured him on the benefits of fencing skills, noting that it was not worth attacking an experienced fighter without knowing how to fight. He decided to limit himself to this. When the captain turned away to climb into the saddle, the enraged Muron hit him in the back. Muron's family connections allowed this matter to be hushed up. Typically, when discussing the duel in social salons, the nobles were perplexed at how an experienced captain could allow such indiscretion, rather than condemning the dishonorable blow. At first, the French kings were present at the most famous fights. However, their position changed quite quickly. In 1547, the Chevalier de Jarnac and de la Chatenierie fought in a duel. Jarnac's sword struck de la Chatenierie, the most famous fighter of his time and the king's favorite, in the knee and the fight was stopped. Chatenieri was very angry, did not allow himself to be bandaged, and died three days later. Henry II abolished the obligation of the king to be present at duels and even began to condemn them. However, the first royal bans did not lead to the disappearance of fights, but, on the contrary, to an increase in their number, and now chain mail hidden under shirts and group attacks were used. It was then that the seconds appeared, who monitored compliance with the rules and, if necessary, could intervene. But in 1578 a duel took place, after which the seconds also began to fight among themselves. At the court of King Henry III there were several young nobles who were favored by the king. All of them distinguished themselves in the military field, dressed provocatively, and valued entertainment and gallant (and other) adventures. For their appearance and behavior they received the nickname “minions” (handsome guys). In “The Countess de Monsoreau,” Dumas told the story of the minions in his own way. We will tell you about what really happened.

The conflict began with a private quarrel between one of the minions - Jacques de Levi, Comte de Quelus with Charles de Balzac d'Entragues, Baron de Dunes. The cause of the quarrel was a certain lady who interested both of them. During a conversation with his opponent, Quelus, as if jokingly, told d'Entragus that he was a fool. D'Entragues, also laughing, replied that Quelus was lying. The opponents arrived at Tournelle Park at five o'clock in the morning, each accompanied by two friends. One of Antrag's seconds, Ribeirac, as expected, tried to reconcile the rivals, but Quelus' second Mozhiron rudely interrupted him and demanded an immediate fight with him. After this, the two remaining seconds, Livaro and Schomberg, began to fight for company. Mozhiron and Schomberg died on the spot, Ribeirac died a few hours after the fight. Livaro was crippled - the sword completely cut off his cheek - and died two years later in another duel. Antrag escaped with a slight wound to the arm. Kelus fought for his life for several days, but died from many wounds. This duel had two very important consequences. Firstly, it became the first group fight, after which fights between seconds and duelists began to come into fashion. Secondly, the king, although he issued several acts against duels, ordered the bodies of the dead minions to be buried in beautiful mausoleums and erected wonderful marble statues over them. And the French nobility understood this position of the king accordingly: fighting, of course, is prohibited, but, in fact, it is extremely honorable. This is how the real “duel fever” began. The Ordinance of 1579, issued by the king at the insistence of the Estates General, threatened punishment for a duel as a lese majeste and breach of peace, but blood flowed like a river despite all prohibitions. During only 20 years of the reign of Henry IV (1589-1610), according to contemporaries, from 8 to 12 thousand nobles died in duels (and some modern historians cite the figure at 20 thousand). However, the royal treasury was always empty, and therefore, instead of the punishment prescribed by the ordinances, the surviving duelists were granted “royal pardon.” Over those years, more than 7 thousand such papers were issued, and they brought the treasury about 3 million livres in gold only through notarization. In such conditions, when fighting became fashionable and prestigious, the reasons for a duel quickly became smaller. “I fight simply because I fight,” the legendary Porthos used to say. It was the same in life! Let's say four worthy chevaliers go to a meeting with another four (only two of the eight have a reason for conflict). Suddenly one of the first four cannot appear - say, he has a stomach ache. The remaining three go to the appointed place, and they meet a completely unfamiliar nobleman, hurrying about his business. They greet him and say: “Worable sir! We found ourselves in a difficult situation: there were four of them, and three of us. The odds are not in our favor. Could you help us?" And the rules of politeness of that time required the stranger to answer that he had been honored, and that both he and his sword were completely at the service of those asking for help. And he went along with the trio and entered into battle with a man whom he had never even heard of until that moment. The struggle of kings against duels entered a new phase under Cardinal Richelieu. The Edict of 1602 threatened the most severe punishment (death penalty and complete confiscation of property) indifferently to both participants, seconds and those present. Despite such strictness of the law, the number of duels almost did not decrease. During the reign of Louis XIV, eleven edicts against dueling were issued, but even during his reign, royal pardons were issued to almost everyone. The last French duels took place with the use of new firearms, although at first there were some oddities. Viscount Turenne and Count Guiche started shooting with arquebuses. The accuracy of the shots was low: two horses and one spectator were unlucky - they were killed. And the duelists, as if nothing had happened, having made peace, moved on their way.

19th century: decline of duels in Europe

In the 19th century, duels in Europe became the exception rather than the rule of behavior. Having survived the revolution, France perceived honor duels as an old class prejudice that collapsed into oblivion along with the Bourbon monarchy. In the Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte, duels also did not take root: the Corsican personally despised them, and when the Swedish king Gustav IV sent him a challenge, he replied: “If the king certainly wants to fight, I will send to him any of the regimental fencing teachers as an authorized minister.” The reasons for duels were sometimes still ridiculously insignificant. For example, in 1814 in Paris, the famous duelist Chevalier Dorsan had three duels in one week. The first took place because the enemy “looked askance at him,” the second because the lancer officer “looked too impudently” at him, and the third because a familiar officer “didn’t look at him at all”! By the middle of the 19th century, the only Western European country where the laws still allowed duels was Germany. By the way, Germany became the birthplace of the famous student duels on sharpened schlagers (rapiers). Dueling fraternities, which were formed at each university, regularly held duels, however, more like sports competitions. In the 10 years from 1867 to 1877, several hundred duels took place in the small universities of Giessen and Freiburg alone. They almost never had a fatal outcome, since all sorts of precautions were taken: the duelists wore special bandages and bandages on their eyes, neck, chest, stomach, legs, arms, and their weapons were disinfected. According to one doctor in Jena, who attended 12,000 fights from 1846 to 1885, there was not a single fatality.

Another trend of the 19th century was the putting on paper of dueling traditions and rules, i.e. drawing up dueling codes. The dueling code was first published by the Comte de Chateauvillart in 1836. Later, the dueling code of Count Verger, published in 1879 and summarizing the experience accumulated over centuries, became generally recognized in Europe.

Duel in Russia

For three centuries in Western Europe, blood flowed, swords flashed and shots thundered in duels of honor. But in Russia it was quiet. The first duel took place here only in 1666. And even then between foreigners in Russian service. These were officer Patrick Gordon, a Scot, later a teacher and ally of Tsar Peter, and Major Montgomery, an Englishman. In 1787, Catherine the Great published the “Manifesto on Duels.” It condemned the duel as a foreign imposition. For wounds and murder in a duel, punishment was imposed as for the corresponding intentional crimes. If the duel ended bloodlessly, then the duel participants and seconds were fined, and the offender was exiled to Siberia for life. Anyone who found out about the duel was obliged to report it to the authorities. And doctors were strictly forbidden to treat wounds received as a result of “French nonsense.”

And at the dawn of the 19th century, during the reign of Alexander I, when the dueling custom in Europe was entering its twilight period, Russia began to experience its own dueling fever. “I challenge you!” - sounded everywhere. Staff Captain Kushelev waited six years for the opportunity to duel with Major General Bakhmetyev. Once he beat young Kushelev with a stick, who had just joined the guard. Although he was only 14 years old, Kushelev did not forget or forgive the offense. They agreed to shoot until they fell, but both missed. Bakhmetyev apologized, the incident was settled, but the story did not end there. One of the seconds, Venanson, as required by law, reported the fight to the military governor of St. Petersburg. The trial took place. They decided to hang Kushelev, and deprive Bakhmetyev and three seconds of their ranks and noble dignity. But the verdict had to be approved by the emperor. And Alexander I took and overturned the court's decision. The emperor punished Kushelev by depriving him of the rank of chamber cadet, ordered Venanson to be imprisoned for a week in a fortress and then deported to the Caucasus, and completely released the rest. As a result, Venanson, the only one who acted according to the law, suffered the most. The emperor sided with public opinion rather than the law.

Insults that led to duels were conventionally divided into three categories:

1) Lungs; the insult concerns unimportant aspects of the personality. The offender made unflattering comments about your appearance, habits, or manners. The insulted person could only choose the type of weapon

2) Moderate severity; the insult was abusive. Then the offended person could choose the type of weapon and the type of duel (until first blood, until a serious wound, until death)

3) Heavy; insult by action. A slap in the face or punches and other assault, as well as very serious accusations from the offender. The victim could choose the type of weapon, the type of duel and set the distance.

In Russia, duels, as a rule, took place with pistols. Initially, we used European rules. Thus, a duel with stationary arrows was common. It was an alternating exchange of shots in no more than a minute. The order was determined by lot. Sometimes in such a duel the opponents were initially placed with their backs to each other. On command, both of them turned around and shot either in turn, or whoever was faster. The distance in such fights was from 15 to 35 steps, but the seconds could agree on less. A duel with “barriers” is the most common. The opponents were placed at a distance of 35-40 steps. A line was drawn in front of each of them; it could be marked with a flag, a cane, or a thrown overcoat. This mark was called a "barrier". The distance between barriers was 15-20 steps. At the command “forward!” the duelists walked towards them, cocking their guns. The weapon had to be held with the muzzle up. Any speed, you can’t stand and retreat, you can stop for a while. Any participant could fire the first shot. But after the first shot, the duelist who had not yet fired could demand that his opponent reach his mark. This is where the famous expression “to the barrier!” comes from. The second shot, therefore, took place at a minimum distance. A duel on parallel lines is the rarest. Two lines were drawn at a distance of 15 steps from each other. The opponents each walked along their own line, the distance gradually decreased, but its minimum was set by the distance between the lines. The firing order is arbitrary, as is the speed of movement and stopping. However, there were also purely Russian inventions, such as the duel “through a handkerchief”, when opponents stood in front of each other at a distance of a handkerchief stretched diagonally, and only one of two pistols was loaded by lot; a duel “barrel to barrel” is exactly the same, only both pistols are loaded; and the “American duel,” when the exchange of shots was replaced by suicide by lot.

The most famous Russian duelist was Count Fyodor Tolstoy, nicknamed the American. In duels, 11 people died at his hands, and according to some sources, even 17. By the way, he was punished for a duel only once. Murder of guards officer A.I. Naryshkin cost him a short imprisonment in a fortress and demotion to a soldier. But then the war with Napoleon began, and Tolstoy was able to prove himself as a brave fighter. In one year, he rose from soldier to colonel! But the fate of Fyodor Tolstoy punished him more severely than the authorities. The American recorded the name of each person killed in a duel in his synodik. He had 12 children, almost all died in infancy, only two daughters survived. With each child's death, a short word appeared in the synodik opposite the name of the person killed in a duel: “quit.” According to legend, after the death of the 11th child, when the names ran out, Tolstoy said: “Thank God, at least my curly-haired gypsy little one will be alive.” Daughter Praskovya, the “gypsy little girl,” actually survived. Dueling tales of those times are no less fascinating than modern stories of hunters or fishermen. There were many stories about Tolstoy. It was said that one day he had an argument on a ship with a naval officer. Tolstoy sent the cartel to the sailor, but he said that the American was a much better shooter and demanded to equalize the chances. Tolstoy proposed a “barrel to barrel” duel, and the sailor believed that it was fairer to fight in the water until one drowned. Tolstoy did not know how to swim, and the sailor declared him a coward. Then the American grabbed the offender and threw himself overboard with him. They both swam out. But the sailor had a heart attack and died.

They also say that one day a good friend of his, in desperation, approached the American with a request to be his second. The next day he had to shoot himself, and he feared for his life. Tolstoy advised his friend to get a good night's sleep and promised to wake him up. When the friend woke up in the morning, he realized that the time for the duel had already come and, afraid that he had overslept, rushed to Tolstoy’s room. He slept without his hind legs. When the friend pushed the American aside, he explained to him that the day before he had gone to his friend’s enemy, insulted him, got him summoned, and fought with him an hour ago. “Everything is fine, he’s killed,” the American explained to his comrade, turned over on his other side and continued to sleep. By the way, in 1826, a duel between Tolstoy and Pushkin almost happened; it was upset by a whole series of coincidences. And so, who knows, maybe the life of the poet, a frequent participant in duels, would have been interrupted earlier.

Kings, presidents and politicians in duels

In 1526, it almost came to a duel between the two most powerful monarchs in Europe. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V called King Francis I of France a dishonest man. He responded with a challenge. It didn’t come to a fight, but this incident greatly raised the authority of the duel among the masses.

The Russian Emperor Paul I challenged all the monarchs of Europe to a duel, publishing the challenge in a Hamburg newspaper - his seconds were supposed to be generals Kutuzov and Palen. The latter, by the way, a little later killed the emperor with his own hands. But not in a duel, but as a conspirator.

The Swedish king Gustav Adolf, a renowned military leader in the first half of the 17th century, vigorously pursued duels with his decrees. But when the army colonel offended by his slap, unable to call the king himself, left his service and left the country, the king caught up with him at the border and himself handed him a pistol with the words: “Here, where my kingdom ends, Gustav Adolf is no longer a king, and here, as an honest man, I am ready to give satisfaction to another honest man.”

But the Prussian king Frederick William I considered it a humiliation for himself to accept a challenge from a certain major. He nominated a guard officer in his place, who defended the honor of the monarch. Formally, the king was absolutely right, but the world did not approve of him.

In Russia, one officer was insulted by Alexander III, while still a crown prince. The officer could not challenge the heir to the throne to a duel, so he sent him a note demanding a written apology, otherwise threatening to commit suicide. The Tsarevich did not react. After 24 hours, the officer fulfilled his promise exactly and shot himself. Emperor Alexander II sharply reprimanded his son and ordered him to accompany the officer's coffin at the funeral.

As for the famous uncrowned politicians, many of them were also involved in duels. So, in 1804, US Vice President Aaron Burr decided to run for governor of New York. Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, publicly accused him of being unreliable. A challenge followed. Burr fatally wounded Hamilton and was brought to trial. He didn't go to prison, but his reputation was ruined. Now only a few people remember him, but Hamilton’s portrait is known to many - it is on the 10 dollar bill. In 1842, Abraham Lincoln anonymously allowed himself to insult Democrat James Shields. He wrote that he was “as much a liar as he is a fool.” Shields was able to find out who the author was. Dueling was prohibited in Illinois, and opponents were forced to travel to the neighboring state of Missouri to duel. However, the seconds managed to persuade Lincoln to apologize and Shields to accept the apology.

The anarchist revolutionary Bakunin challenged Karl Marx to a duel when he made disparaging remarks about the Russian army. It is interesting that, although Bakunin, as an anarchist, was an opponent of any regular army, he stood up for the honor of the Russian uniform, which he wore in his youth, as an artillery ensign. However, Marx, who in his youth had fought with students of the University of Bonn more than once with swords and was proud of the scars on his face, did not accept Bakunin’s challenge, since his life now belonged to the proletariat!

Some funny incidents in duels

200 years ago, a young widow in San Belmont was insulted by a rake. He did not want to fight with the woman, and she had to dress up as a man and find an independent reason for the challenge. During the duel, she knocked out his sword and only then revealed the secret - a woman defeated him. The enemy was doubly ashamed.

A popular French joke was the story of a duel between two officers. One of them was late for the fight, and his second said to the enemy: “Lieutenant McMahory asked me to tell you that if you are in a hurry, you can start without him.”

One day in England two lords gathered to fight. Before the start of the duel, one of the participants stated that it was unfair: the opponent was much fatter. He immediately suggested marking the contours of the opponent on himself and not counting hits outside the marked zone. The moved enemy refused the duel.

In many variations, they tell an anecdote about the most famous theatrical duel, changing the names of the participants and the title of the play. The bottom line is that after several unsuccessful attempts during the performance to kill a character in a duel, his partner ran up to him and kicked him out of anger. Saving the situation, the actor shouted: “Oh my God, his boot is poisoned!” After which he fell “dead”.

And finally, the legendary “American duel” with the participation of Alexandre Dumas. Having quarreled with a certain officer, he was forced to accept his terms of the duel. One loaded revolver, a hat, and in the hat there are two pieces of paper with the inscriptions “death” and “life”. Whoever pulls out “death” must shoot himself. “Death” drew Dumas. Having said goodbye to his friends, he retired to the next room. A shot rang out. Opening the door, the seconds saw an unharmed Dumas in the room, who said: “I missed!”

Exotic duels

In 1645, a duel took place in London in a dark basement on cleavers. In the end, the opponents simply got tired - the cleavers were heavy - and made peace.

Young Frenchmen Pic and Grandpère fought for the heart of the royal opera diva. When it came to the duel, these brave guys decided to fight not on earth, but in heaven. Both took to the sky in hot air balloons. At an altitude of 200 m, the balls approached to the distance of aimed fire. Granper fired his ramrod gun first and hit the shell of the enemy's ball. The aircraft caught fire and went down like a stone. On this sinful earth it turned out that the beauty fled abroad with a third admirer.

No less exotic was the duel between two English officers in India. The British sat for several hours in a dark room, where they released a spectacled snake. In the end, the cobra did bite one of the duelists.

A very strange duel almost took place in Russia with the participation of the legendary adventurer and hoaxer Count Cagliostro. Cagliostro called the doctor of the heir to the throne of the future Paul I a charlatan. The life doctor challenged him to a duel. The Count chose two pills as his weapon, one of which was filled with poison. However, the doctor refused such a “duel”.

In France, duels took place with billiard balls, canes, razors and even crucifixes. And in Russia, bailiff Tsitovich and staff captain Zhegalov fought on heavy copper candelabra. Tsitovich chose this “weapon” because he could neither fence nor shoot a pistol.

They say that Hemingway, being a correspondent on the Italian front during the First World War, was challenged to a duel and offered conditions and weapons: twenty paces and hand grenades.

There are cases when women also took part in duels. And sometimes defending the honor of men. In 1827, in France, Madame Chaterou learned that her husband had received a slap on the wrist, but did not demand satisfaction. Then she herself challenged the offender to a duel and seriously wounded him with a sword. And the opera singer Maupin generally had a reputation as a real brat. She had a very unbridled temper and took lessons from the best fencing teacher at that time. At one of the receptions, Maupin insulted one of the ladies. She was asked to leave the hall, but she set the condition that all the men dissatisfied with her behavior should leave with her. Three brave souls were found, and the opera fury stabbed them all one after the other in turn. Louis XIV, who was very uncompromising about duels, admired Maupin’s courage, pardoned her.

The tradition of dueling originated in modern times among the Western European aristocracy. Such fights had strict regulations. It was determined by a code - a set of generally accepted rules. The duel in Russia was adopted in its classical European form. The state has been fighting this custom for a long time, declaring it illegal and persecuting those who, despite the prohibitions, went to shoot or fight with the enemy with edged weapons.

Code

The generally accepted code established the reasons and reasons for fights, their types, the procedure for conducting, rejecting and accepting a challenge. Every duel in Russia complied with these rules. If a person violated these guidelines, he could be dishonored. There were several national codes. The differences between them were insignificant.

The first dueling code can be considered a French document from 1836. It was published by the Comte de Chateauvillars. On the basis of this code, analogues were built in other countries, including Russia. Another important pan-European set of rules was the collection published by Count Verger in 1879. The most famous Russian domestic document of this kind was the Durasov Code of 1912. According to the rules from which it was compiled, duels were organized in Russia. The 19th century became a period of generalization of these traditions. Therefore, the code was known to every nobleman and officer even before the appearance of its Duras edition. The 1912 edition was merely a set of recommendations reinforcing well-known customs.

The tradition of the classical duel of the New Age is considered the successor to the Western knightly tournaments of the Middle Ages. In both cases, the battle was considered a matter of honor with a certain ritual from which none of the opponents deviated. were abolished in the 16th century due to the fact that the usual equipment of opponents became outdated and ineffective. It was then that the foot duel was born, which reached the pinnacle of its evolution in the 19th century.

Weapon

Initially, duels in Russia, as in other countries, were fought exclusively with edged weapons. These were blades that aristocrats or soldiers usually carried with them. These types of weapons were rapiers, swords, and daggers. If it was a judicial duel (common only in the Middle Ages), then the choice depended on the decision of the court. He was also influenced by the class of his opponents. If the opponents did not belong to the “noble” strata of society, they could even fight with axes or clubs.

Dags and shields ceased to be used in the 17th century. At that time, fencing technology was rapidly developing. Attack speed began to play a big role in battle. As a result, a massive transition to rapiers began, which were already exclusively piercing, rather than chopping weapons.

In the 18th century, when duels in Russia were gradually becoming a widespread tradition in the army, single-shot hammer pistols began to spread more and more. The use of firearms changed a lot in the tradition of one-on-one duels. Now the result of the battle was not influenced by the physical training or age of its participants. Melee weapons required more skills. If one duelist was distinguished by skillful fencing and better defense, he risked almost nothing. In a fight with pistols, on the contrary, everything was decided by almost blind chance. Even a bad shooter could kill his opponent, all he needed was luck.

Canonicity and exoticism

Many duels in 19th century Russia were deliberately fought using an identical pair of pistols (specially made and similar down to the smallest detail). All these factors equalized the opponents' chances as much as possible. The only difference between such pistols could be the serial numbers on the barrels. Today, a duel in Russia is remembered only as a foot fight. However, such a format did not arise immediately. Previously, gun duels were popular, in which opponents sat on horseback.

More rare were fights where rifles, shotguns or carbines were used. Nevertheless, cases of the use of long-barreled weapons have been recorded. Some fights were even more exotic. There is a well-known duel in Russia, when the opponents (staff captain Zhegalov and bailiff Tsitovich) used copper candelabra, since one of the participants could neither fence nor shoot.

Call

Traditionally, duels began with a challenge. The reason for it was an insult when a person believed that he had the right to challenge his offender to a duel. This custom was associated with the concept of honor. It was quite broad, and its interpretation depended on the specific case. At the same time, material disputes about property or money were resolved among the nobility in the courts. If the victim filed an official complaint against his offender, he no longer had the right to challenge him to a duel. Otherwise, fights were fought out of public ridicule, revenge, jealousy, etc.

It is also important that, according to the concepts of that era, only someone equal in social status could insult a person. That is why duels were held in narrow circles: between nobles, military men, etc., but it was impossible to imagine a battle between a tradesman and an aristocrat. If a junior officer challenged his superior to a duel, the latter could refuse the challenge without damage to his honor, although there are known cases when such battles were nevertheless organized. Basically, when a dispute concerned people from different social classes, their litigation was resolved exclusively in court.

In the event of an insult, the code recommended calmly demanding an apology from the offender. In case of refusal, a notification followed that seconds would arrive to the enemy. The challenge could be written (cartel) or oral. It was considered good form to contact the offender within the first 24 hours after the insult. Delaying a call was frowned upon.

There were often cases when a person insulted several people at once. The rules of duels in the 19th century in Russia in this case established that only one of them could challenge the offender to a duel (if several challenges were received, only one of his choice would be satisfied). This custom excluded the possibility of reprisals against the offender through the efforts of many people.

Types of insults

The Code divided insults into three types according to severity. Ordinary insults were caused by words and only hurt the nobleman’s pride. They were not about reputation or good name. These could be sarcastic statements, public attacks on appearance, manner of dressing, etc. Serious insults were inflicted by an indecent gesture or word. They affected reputation and honor. This could be an accusation of deceit or obscene language. Such actions, as a rule, led to duels until injury or first blood.

Finally, the code regulated insults of the third degree. These included aggressive actions: throwing objects, slapping, hitting. Similar insults, completed or not completed for some reason, were regarded equally. These also included his wife’s betrayal. If the insulted person responded with a similar insult towards his offender, he was not deprived of his right to schedule a duel. However, there were also nuances. If the insulted person responded with a more serious insult (for example, gave a slap in response to a slight mockery), then the insulted party became the offender, who received the right to order a duel.

Characters

Only the duelists themselves, their seconds, and the doctor could be present at the duel in Russia. The 19th century, the rules of which were based on generally accepted principles, is considered the heyday of this tradition. The later code prohibited challenging close relatives to a duel. For example, you couldn’t fight with your own brother, but you could with your cousin. Duels between debtors and creditors were also prohibited.

Women, as well as men with serious injuries or illnesses, could not take part in the battle. There was also an age limit. Calls from older people over 60 were not welcomed, although there were exceptions. If a person who was unable or did not have the right to participate in a duel was insulted, he could be replaced by a “patron.” As a rule, such people were the closest relatives.

The honor of a woman could theoretically be defended with arms in hand by any volunteer man, especially if the insult was inflicted on her in a public place. If a wife was unfaithful to her husband, her lover would end up in a duel. If the husband cheated, he could be called by the girl’s relative or any other man who wanted.

Seconds

The classic rules of pistol duels stipulated that between the challenge and the fight itself, the insulter and the insulted should not communicate or meet with each other. Seconds were appointed to conduct negotiations, and they organized preparations for the fight. For them, the code recommended choosing people with an untarnished reputation and equal social status. The seconds vouched with their honor that the duel would comply with the norms of the code and be organized under equal conditions for the opponents.

It was considered wrong when an interested person took on the task of organizing a fight. That is why duels in Russia, the rules of which were binding on all parties, prohibited appointing a close relative as a second. The powers of the “right hand” were determined by whoever participated in the fight. The duelist could allow his second to act entirely at his own discretion, or even accept peace from the second of the person who insulted him. As a rule, assistants only conveyed messages, acting as couriers.

If the proxies failed to agree on peace, a discussion began on the technical details of the upcoming clash. It depended on their agreement whether the duel would be fatal or only until first blood, what the barrier distance would be (if these were pistol duels). In Russia, the code allowed turning to a person respected on both sides so that he could act as an arbitrator if the seconds could not agree on the terms of the duel. The decisions of such a person were accepted by opponents without objection. One of the two seconds took on another important function. He gave orders during the duel itself (gave the command to shoot, etc.). A doctor at a duel was needed, firstly, to ascertain injuries or death, and secondly, to help those injured.

Progress of the battle

As a rule, duels took place in secluded places and early in the morning. The time of arrival of the opponents was strictly defined. If a participant was late by more than 15 minutes, his opponent could leave the place of the duel, and the one who was delayed in this case was recognized as having deviated and deprived of honor.

At the beginning of the fight, the seconds once again proposed ending the conflict peacefully. In case of refusal, they announced the pre-agreed rules of the duel. In Russia, apologies before the last barrier were prohibited. Anyone who began to hesitate when the manager had already announced the start of the duel was recognized as a coward. The opponents shot or attacked each other with edged weapons after the command of one of the seconds. He declared the duel over. The duel ended after the use of pistols, injury or death (depending on the agreements) of one of the participants from a stabbing weapon.

If in the end the duelists remained alive, they shook hands at the end. The offender apologized. Such a gesture no longer humiliated him, since honor was restored by the duel. Apologies after the fight were considered only a tribute to tradition and the norm of the code. Even when duels in Russia were characterized by cruelty, the seconds, after the end of the battle, always drew up a detailed protocol of what happened. It was certified with two signatures. The document was necessary to confirm that the duel took place in full accordance with the norms of the code.

Duels with bladed weapons

Standard options for conducting duels were established in the aristocratic environment by the 19th century. First of all, the nature of the fight was determined by the weapon used. Duels in Russia in the 18th century were fought with rapiers. Subsequently, this generally accepted set was preserved and became classic. Most often, identical weapons were used, but with the consent of the parties, each opponent could use his own blade.

Duels with the use of bladed weapons could be mobile or stationary. In the first option, the seconds marked out a long area or path on which free movement of the fighters was allowed. Retreats, detours and other fencing techniques were allowed. A stationary duel assumed that the opponents were located at striking distance, and the battle was fought by duelists standing in their places.

The weapon was held in one hand, and the other remained behind the back. It was impossible to hit the enemy with your own limbs. Capturing an enemy blade was also prohibited. The fight started after the signal given by the managing second. Only this person had the right to immediately stop the battle at the first request. This principle was one of the most important for any duel in Russia. The 19th century, the rules of which seem surprising today, instilled in people the concept of honor, and it was they who forbade disobeying the manager, even if he was the enemy’s second.

If the opponent dropped his weapon, his counterpart stopped the fight and waited for the blade to be raised. Duels until wounded or until first blood were stopped after the first hit. Then the doctor spoke. If he concluded that the wound was too severe to continue the fight, the duel ended.

Pistol fights

In the 19th century, a pair of pistols was always kept in the house of every noble family. He held on for a very specific purpose. Firearms were obtained after a challenge to a duel. These pistols were single-shot. In this case, only those that had not yet been used and were considered unfired were used. This rule was necessary in order not to give any of the opponents a noticeable advantage.

The familiar pistol immediately gave the shooter a certain head start. It was all the stronger because in the 19th century, firearms were made mainly individually, and each specimen had unique characteristics. The use of dual pistols solved this problem. The participants arrived at the fight site with their pairs sets intact. The rules of pistol duels in Russia stated that the choice between sets was made by lot.

According to widespread tradition, duelists using firearms fired only one shot at a time. Quite often, as a result of such salvoes, no one was killed or even injured. Even in this case, the duel was considered over and honor restored. The opponents were not at all eager to deal with each other. At the same time, an intentional (or even demonstrative) shot past the target could generally be regarded as an insult. There are cases when such gestures led to a new duel.

Less common was the practice in which the seconds agreed on the fight before the first wound. In this case, if the shots did not hit anyone, the pistols were loaded again until someone hit an opponent. With a new attempt, the seconds could reduce the distance between the opponents and thereby increase the risk for the duelists.

Types of gun duels

Like the rules for duels with edged weapons, the rules for firearms assumed the possibility of a stationary duel. In this case, the opponents stood at a distance of 15-20 steps from each other. Shots could be fired simultaneously at the command of the manager or in sequence, determined by random drawing.

The most common in Russia was a mobile fight with barriers. In this case, a special path was marked between the opponents. Its boundaries were marked by obstacles, which could be any large objects. After the manager’s command, the rivals began to converge, moving towards each other. Stopping at the barrier, the duelist fired.

A distance of 15 steps in Russia was considered “peaceful”. At such a distance, the arrows rarely hit the target. It was a “noble distance.” However, despite his imaginary safety, Alexander Pushkin is 20 steps away. Blind duels were also practiced. In such a duel, men fired shots over the shoulder, standing with their backs to each other.

Some duels were arranged according to the principle of Russian roulette. It was resorted to in cases of irreconcilable hostility between shooters. The opponents stood at a distance of 5-7 steps. Of the two pistols, only one was loaded. Weapons were distributed by lot. Thus, the rivals maximized the risk and randomness of the outcome. The lot provided equal chances, and it was on this principle that the rules of pistol duels were based. The code also included gun-to-gun combat. The only difference with the previous one was that both pistols were loaded. Such showdowns often ended in the death of both shooters.

The most brutal fights forced Western Europeans to perceive Russian duels of the 19th century as “legalized murder.” In fact, the state has been fighting this tradition for a long time. Duelists were often stripped of their titles and ended up in exile.

Duel

DUEL-And; and.[French duel]

1. In a noble society: an armed duel by challenging one of the opponents in the presence of seconds under predetermined conditions (as a way of protecting personal honor). Lethal d. Conditions of the duel. Call to d. Fight a duel. D. with pistols, with swords. // About a shootout between two sides. Tankovaya village Artillery preparation moved to the fire station.

2. Competition, competition between two sides. Chess village D. two recognized acting talents. Correspondence duel(About a dispute between two people. // About an argument between two people. Verbal, d.

◁ Dueling, oh, oh. D rules. D. pistol.

(French duel, from Latin duellum - war), a duel (with the use of weapons) between two persons upon the challenge of one of them. In a figurative sense - a struggle, a competition between two sides.

DUEL (French duel, from Latin duellum - war), a duel (with the use of weapons) between two persons upon the challenge of one of them. In a figurative sense - a struggle, a competition between two sides.
The history of duels (fights) is closely connected with society’s ideas about ways to defend honor. Tacitus (cm. TACITUS) testifies to the custom of the ancient Germans to resolve quarrels with weapons. But duels were of particular importance to the medieval knights of Europe. In France, a dueling code was developed, borrowed from other countries, where it was reworked according to local customs. In almost all countries, duels were prosecuted by law, and at the same time, public opinion condemned avoidance of duels. The right to duel was recognized only by nobles.
The first duels in Russia took place at the end of the 18th century. Peter I (cm. PETER I the Great), despite his passion for European orders and customs, immediately began to fight this phenomenon. According to the “Sheremetev Code” (1702), even a challenge to a duel was severely punished; the “Short Article” (1706) prescribed the death penalty for the participants in the duel, even if it did not have tragic consequences.
Subsequently, in accordance with the “Military Regulations” (1715), persons were punished not only for challenging and participating in a duel, but also for those who did not report this fact to the military court. For a challenge to a duel, the duelist was deprived of his rank, a fine was charged, and part of his property was confiscated. Seconds were also punished for entering a duel.
Under Anna Ioannovna (cm. Anna Ivanovna) and Elizaveta Petrovna (cm. ELIZAVETA Petrovna) fights become more frequent. Catherine II (cm. CATHERINE II) issues the “Manifesto on Duels” (1787), according to which duels were recognized as “a foreign plant for Russia.” Nevertheless, it was not possible to eradicate duels.
Nicholas I was a fierce opponent of duels. (cm. NICHOLAY I Pavlovich), who considered them a manifestation of barbarism. Despite the sharply negative attitude of the Russian emperor towards this phenomenon, the number of duels grew. As a result of the fights, the great Russian poets Pushkin and Lermontov died.
Only Nicholas II (cm. NICHOLAY II Alexandrovich) allowed duels for Russian officers, and, moreover, in case of insult, the officer was obliged to fight in a duel.

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

See what a “duel” is in other dictionaries:

Duel, and... Russian word stress

- (French duel, Latin duellum, from bellurn war). Duel. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. DUEL is a duel between 2 opponents, for the sake of public opinion, which believes that in some cases... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

DUEL, duels, women. (French duel). A duel that takes place according to certain rules, a battle between two opponents upon the challenge of one of them. A duel between someone and someone. Duel of Pushkin with Dantes. Fight a duel with someone. Call... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Cm … Synonym dictionary

duel- and, f. duel m., German Duell, it. duello. A duel that took place with the use of weapons between two opponents upon the challenge of one of them. BAS 2. A duel, single combat, a battle between two, or many especially with swords, or with pistols in ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

- (duel, one on one, one on each side). Wed. The duel is ugliness, absurdity, barbarity, a remnant of the Middle Ages, we repeat all this, and with complete conviction, but what is better: to remain forever with a brand on the forehead, or to take the risk... ... Michelson's Large Explanatory and Phraseological Dictionary (original spelling)

- (duel) a medieval institution, which directly arose from the practice of private wars and is an ennobled form of self-inflicted revenge, developed among the knightly feudal nobility. In the XVI-XVII centuries. D. is prohibited in Western Europe and is equivalent to ... Legal dictionary

- (French eduel, from Latin duellum war), a duel (with the use of weapons) between two persons upon the challenge of one of them under predetermined conditions. In a figurative sense, a struggle, a competition between two sides... Modern encyclopedia

- (French duel from Latin duellum war), a duel (with the use of weapons) between two persons upon the challenge of one of them. In a figurative sense, a struggle, a competition between two sides... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

DUEL, and, women. 1. Same as duel (1 value). Call to the village. Killed in a duel. 2. transfer A struggle, a competition between two sides. Chess village, Slovesnaya village, Artilleriyskaya village (shootout). | adj. dueling, aya, oe (to 1 value). Dueling pistols... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary